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2. See Posner, Richard A., The Law and Economics of Intellectual Property, Daedalus, Spring 2002, at 5, 12Google Scholar.

3. But see Tansey, Geoff, Patents and Quaker Action (Quaker United Nations Office & Quaker International Affairs Programme n.d.)Google Scholar.

4. See, e.g., Brief of George A. Akerlof et al. as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners, Eldred v. Aschcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003) (No. 01-618); Liebowitz, Stan J. & Margolis, Stephen, Seventeen Famous Economists Weight in on Copyright: The Role of Theory, Empirics, and Network Effects, 18 Harv. J.L. & Tech. 435 (2005)Google Scholar.

5. See, e.g., Klemperer, Paul, How Broad Should the Scope of Patent Protection Be?, 21 Rand J. Egon. 113 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gilbert, Richard & Shapiro, Carl, Optimal Patent Length & Breadth, 21 Rand J. Econ. 106 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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7. Posner, supra note 2, at 12.

8. See May, Christopher & Sell, Susan K., Intellectual Property Rights: A Critical History 7 (Lynne Rienner 2006)Google Scholar.

9. These economic terms refer to the tradeoff that intellectual property makes between the short-run and long run. In the short run, static efficiency is negatively affected when the monopoly created by intellectual property rights allows a seller to price a good at a much higher level than he or she would be able to in a competitive market. In the long run, however, these static inefficiencies may promote dynamic efficiency by providing incentives to create newer and more efficient goods and services.

10. See May & Sell, supra note 8, at 26 (referring to this as a “public goo[d] of diffusion”).

11. See infra Pt. IV.A.

12. See infra note 133.

13. See, e.g., Trouiller, Patriceet al., Drug Development for Neglected Diseases: A Deficient Market and a Public-Health Policy Failure, 359 Lancet 2188 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. (“[O]f 1393 new chemical entities marketed between 1975 and 1999, only 16 were for tropical diseases and tuberculosis”).

14. May & Sell, supra note 8, at 1.

15. See id. at 20-21.

16. See, e.g., Helfer, Laurence R., Human Rights and intellectual Property: Conflict or Coexistence?, 5 Minn. Intell. Prop. Rev. 47 (2003)Google Scholar; De George, Richard T., Intellectual Property and Pharmaceutical Drugs: an Ethical Analysis, 15 Bus. Ethics Q. 549 (2005)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Pogge, Thomas, World Poverty and Human Rights: Cosmopolitan Responsibilities and Reforms 222–61 (2d ed., Polity 2008)Google Scholar; Outterson, Kevin & Light, Donald W., Global Pharmaceutical Markets, in A Companion to Bloethics 417 (Kuhse, Helga & Singer, Peter eds., 2d ed., Wiley-Blackwell 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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19. See Baier, Annette C., Moral Prejudices 246 (Harv. Univ. Press 1994)Google Scholar.

20. See, e.g., Morgan-Foster, Jason, Third Generation Rights: What Islamic Law Can Teach the International Human Rights Movement, 8 Yale Hum. Rts. & Dev. L.J. 67, 68, 74 (2005)Google Scholar; Cover, Robert M., Obligation: A Jewish Jurisprudence of the Social Order, 5 J.L. & Religion 65 (1987)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21. See Brady, Bernard V., Essential Catholic Social Thought 17 (Orbis 2008)Google Scholar (“The Catholic moral tradition characteristically, however, does not base its moral positions on arguments from the official position. This is an important point and a distinguishing feature of this tradition. Social Catholicism always answers the question why with forms of reasoned statements.”).

22. Curran, Charles E., Catholic Social Teaching 1891-Present: A Historical, Theological, and Ethical Analysis 181 (Georgetown Univ. Press 2002)Google Scholar.

23. See Catechism of the Catholic Church, pt. 3, § 2, ch. 2, art. 7, No. 1, http://www.Vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a7.htm#l (last visited Mar. 13, 2010).

24. See, e.g., Hiers, Richard H., Biblical Social Welfare Legislation: Protected Classes and Provisions for Persons in Need, 17 J.L. & Religion 49 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Patterson, Richard D., The Widow, the Orphan, and the Poor in the Old Testament and the Extra-Biblical Literature, 130 Bibliotheca Sacra 223 (1973)Google Scholar; Fensham, F. Charles, Widow, Orphan and the Poor in Ancient Near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Literature, 21 J. Near E. Stud. 129 (1962)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See generally Weinfeld, Moshe, Social Justice in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient Near East (Fortress 1995)Google Scholar.

25. See Cover, supra note 20.

26. Deut 24:19-21 (All Biblical citations are from the NRSV.).

27. Lev 23:22.

28. Deut 14:28-29.

29. See Hiers, supra note 24, at 66-82.

30. Id. at 66.

31. Lev 25:23.

32. See generally North, Robert, Sociology of the Biblical Jubilee (Pontifical Biblical Inst. 1954)Google Scholar; Fager, Jeffrey A., Land Tenure and the Biblical Jubilee (JSOT Press 1993)Google Scholar.

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34. Chrysostom, John, Homily LXXVII on the Gospel of Matthew § 3 (c. 400), reprinted inPeter C. Phan, Social Thought 146 (Michael Glazier 1984)Google Scholar.

35. John Chrysostom, Homily X on the First Letter to the Corinthians § 3 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 151.

36. John Chrysostom, Homily XI on the First Letter to Timothy § 2 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 157.

37. Ambrose, On Naboth § 58 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 175.

38. See, e.g., Ehrenfield, David & Bentley, Philip J., Judaism and the Practice of Stewardship, 34 Judaism 301 (1985)Google Scholar.

39. See Matt 25:14-30; see also Luke 19:12-27 (the parable of the pounds, a similar but less well-known text).

40. Matt 25:29.

41. See, e.g., Carpenter, John B., The Parable of the Talents in Missionary Perspective: A Call for an Economic Spirituality, 25 Missiology: Int'l Rev. 165 (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. But see Chenoweth, Ben, Identifying the Talents: Contextual Clues for the Interpretation of the Parable of the Talents, 56.1Tyndale Bull. 61 (2005)Google Scholar (arguing that this traditional interpretation of the parable is incorrect).

42. John Chrysostom, Homily LXXVII on the Gospel of Matthew § 3 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 145.

43. 17 The Oxford English Dictionary 580 (2d ed., Oxford Univ. Press 1989)Google Scholar.

44. See Catechism of the Catholic Church, supra note 23, at Nos. 1, 6.

45. John Chrysostom, Homily Il to the People of Antioch § 6 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 138-39. Chrysostom is referring to 1 Timothy 6:17, traditionally attributed to the Apostle Paul, which in its entirety reads, “As for those who in the present age are rich, command them not to be haughty, or to set their hopes on the uncertainty of riches, but rather on God who richly provides us with everything for our enjoyment.”

46. Id. at 139.

47. Id.

48. Ambrose, On Duties § 132 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 177.

49. Augustine, City of God bk. 19, ch. 13 (c. 425), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 235.

50. Id. at 235-36.

51. Augustine, Sermons (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 226.

52. Augustine, Letter to Macedonius (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 208.

53. Basil, The Short Rules § 92 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 121.

54. Basil, Homily Delivered in Times of Famine and Drought § 7 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 119.

55. Social Thought, supra note 34, at 136. See supra note 46 and accompanying text.

56. See Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, pt. 2.2, § 66, art. 1 (c. 1270); see also Curran, supra note 22, at 175.

57. Aquinas, supra note 56, at art. 1. It is interesting to note that Thomas's justifications are almost a medieval forerunner to the modern notion of the “tragedy of the commons,” the idea that resources held in common will inevitably be damaged or destroyed by overuse of individuals because each person attends only to their own individual interests. For the classic exposition of the tragedy of the commons, see Hardin, Garrett, The Tragedy of the Commons, 162 Sci. 1243, 1244 (1968)Google ScholarPubMed.

58. Thomas, supra note 56, at art. 2.

59. id. at art. 7.

60. Id.

61. Id. at art. 2.

62. Brady, supra note 21, at 60.

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64. Locke, John, Second Treatise of Government, ch. 5 § 26-27 (MacPherson, C.B. ed., C.B. MacPherson 1980) (1689)Google Scholar.

65. See Curran, supra note 22, at 177.

66. Leo XIII, supra note 63, at § 3, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 23.

67. “On the fortieth year”; Quadragesimo Anno was promulgated in 1931, the fortieth anniversary of Rerum Novarum.

68. Leo XIII's teachings on property, the encyclical notes, were causing some to “accuse the supreme pontiff and the Church as upholding both then and now the wealthier classes against the proletariat.” Pope Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno (1931), reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 51.

69. Id. at 52.

70. Id. at 55.

71. “Joy and hope.“

72. Second Vatican Council, Gaudium et Spes § 69 (1965), reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 212-13.

73. Curran, supra note 22, at 180.

74. “Concern about social matters.”

75. Paul, Pope John II, Sollicitude Rei Sodalis § 42 (1987)Google Scholar, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 426.

76. Pope John Paul II, Message of the Holy Father to the Group “Jubilee 2000 Debt Campaign,” 1999) 4 ¶, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/1999/september/documents/hf_jp-ii_mes_23091999Jubilee-2000-debt-campaign_en.html (last visited Mar. 24, 2010).

77. It would be informative, however, to consider traditional historical justifications for new forms of property before those new forms are codified into law.

78. Benkler, Yochai, Intellectual Property and the Organization of Information Production, 22 Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. 81, 83 n. 13 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79. Your use of an idea or arrangement of words may very well diminish my ability to economically exploit the same idea or arrangement of words, but it does not diminish my ability to utilize the idea or arrangement itself.

80. Thomas, supra note 56, at art. 2.

81. U.S. Const, art. 1, § 8, cl. 8.

82. Fox Film Corp. v. Doyal, 286 U.S. 123, 127 (1932).

83. Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 429 (1984).

84. Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470, 480 (1974).

85. See May & Sell, supra note 8, at 7.

86. Finn, supra note 17, at 51–52.

87. Id. at 52 (“[T]he vast majority of the value of the wealth we enjoy in the modern world is not in any simple sense ‘nature's bounty … placed by God at the disposal of all his children indiscriminately.’ Human intelligence, creativity, and hard work have created it.”).

88. Benkler, Yochai, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom 311–12 (Yale Univ. Press 2006)Google Scholar.

89. John Paul II, Centesimus Annus §§ 31-32 (1991); reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 462-63.

90. Finn, supra note 19, at 60-61.

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93. Benkler, supra note 88, at 37.

94. See supra pp. 424-25.

95. Finn, supra note 17, at 56.

96. Paul, John II, Laborem Exercens § 27 (1981)Google Scholar, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 388 (“All work, whether manual or intellectual, is inevitably linked with toil.”).

97. See supra pp. 434-35.

98. Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, art. 5(a), cl. 2-4, opened for signature Mar. 20, 1883, 21 U.S.T. 1583, 828 U.N.T.S. 305. But see Patent Misuse Reform Act, 35 U.S.C. § 271(d)(4) (2007) (which does not deny relief to patent holders for infringement even if they have “refused to license or use any rights to the patent”).

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100. Although many pharmaceutical companies have established programs to provide certain products at low or no cost to developing nations, this often comes about as a result of outside pressure. See infra p. 443; Petersen, Melody & McNeil, Donald G. Jr., Maker Yielding Patent in Africa for AIDS Drug, N.Y. Times, 03 15, 2001Google Scholar, at A1. But see Boseley, Sarah, Drug Giant GlaxoSmithKline Pledges Cheap Medicine for World's Poor, Guardian, 06 14, 2009, at 1, available at http://www.guardian.co.Uk/business/2009/feb/13/glaxo-smith-kline-cheap-medicineGoogle Scholar (a recent, unprecedented, and pleasant counterexample to this trend).

101. World Health Organization [WHO], Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing 1, WHO/HTM/TB/2008.393 (2008)Google Scholar.

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103. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS [UNAIDS], Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic 2008, at 32, UNAIDS/08.25E/JC1510E (2008).

104. See, e.g., World Health Organization [WHO] et al., Sources and Prices of Selected Medicines and Diagnostics for People Living with HIV/AIDS (6th ed. 2005), available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241593342_eng.pdfGoogle Scholar (noting that factors such as import duties, taxes, and the quality and quantity of distribution services and health facilities all play a role in determining access).

105. See supra note 17, and accompanying text.

106. The Agreement on Trade Relate Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), is a highly influential and controversial international agreement that applies to all members of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Among other things, it sets minimum global standards for the protection of various forms of intellectual property. See May & Sell, supra note 8, at 161-201.

107. See, e.g., Hoen, Ellen 't, TRIPS, Pharmaceutical Patents, and Access to Essential Medicines: A Long Way from Seattle to Doha, 3 Chi. J. Int'l L. 27 (2002)Google ScholarPubMed; Abbott, Frederick M., The TRIPS agreement. Access to Medicines, and the WTO Doha Ministerial Conference, 5 J. World Intell. Prop. 15 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Velasquez, Germán & Boulet, Pascale, Globalization and Access to Drugs: Perspectives on the WTO/TRIPS Agreement pt. I, WHO/DAP/98.9 (2d ed., 1999)Google Scholar.

108. Perez-Casas, Carmenet al., Access to Fluconazole in Less-developed Countries, 356 Lancet 2102, 2102 (2000)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

109. Id.

110. Id.

111. Bicanic, Tihana & Harrison, Thomas S., Cryptococcal Meningitis, 72 Brit. Med. Bull. 110 (2004)Google ScholarPubMed.

112. Wilson, Davidet al., Global Trade and Access to Medicines: AIDS Treatments in Thailand, 354 Lancet 1893 (1999)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

113. See Perez-Casas et al., supra note 108, at 2102 (These events took place before the Doha Ministerial Declaration, which emphasized the legality of compulsory licensing.).

114. Sithole, Emelia, S. Africa Okays Pfizer AIDS Drug Distribution, Reuters News, 06 21, 2001Google Scholar.

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118. Outterson, supra note 116, at 169; Global: WHO Narrows Down Second-Line ARV Options, PlusNews ¶ 7, 06 7, 2008Google Scholar.

119. Plusnews, supra note 118, at ¶ 7.

120. See Outterson, supra note 116, at 169.

121. World Health Organization [WHO], Comprehensive Cervical Cancer Control 16, Wp 480 (2006), available at http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/cancers/9241547006/en/index.htmlGoogle Scholar.

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127. See Outterson, supra note 116, at 169.

128. Vaccines, however, raise some special ethical issues, since their use is preventative rather than responsive, as in the case of both fluconazole and antiretroviral drugs.

129. Gratian, supra note 1.

130. Second Vatican Council, supra note 72, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 213.

131. Martin, Diarmuid, Intervention by His Excellency Mons. Diarmuid Martin to the Plenary Council of the World Trade Organization on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 3 (2001), available at http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/doc1unents/rc_seg-st_doc_20010620_wto_en.htmlGoogle Scholar.

132. See supra p. 443.

133. See, e.g., Arunmas, Puhsadee, Thailand Could Face Sanctions After Lobbying by Drug Firms, Bangkok Post, 01 31, 2008Google Scholar (reporting that the pharmaceutical industry trade group threatened to pressure the U.S. Trade Representative to designate Thailand as a Priority Foreign Country if it issued various compulsory licenses); see also Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), Special 301 Submission 2008, at 21 available at http://ustraderep.gov/assets/Trade_Sectors/lntellectual_Property/Special_301_Public_Submissions_2008/asset_upload_file109_14495.pdf (in which the industry trade group suggests that Thailand be designated a Priority Foreign country, specifically citing “the Health Ministry's decision to issue compulsory licenses on six innovative medicines”).

134. See, e.g., O'Grady, Mary Anastasia, Brazil Mulls Drug Patent Theft as an AIDS Antidote, Wall Street J., 06 24, 2005, at A13Google Scholar.

135. See Brazil to Steal American Pharmaceutical Patents, 151 Cong. Rec. E1435 (2005), available at http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/R?r109:FLD001:E01436 (statement of Rep. Tom Feeney)Google Scholar.

136. Second Vatican Council, supra note 72, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 213.

137. One would never expect to see compulsory licensing of products such as Rogaine or Viagra.

138. Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America, Pharmaceutical Industry Profile 59 (2008), available at http://www.phrma.org/files/2008%20Profile.pdfGoogle Scholar.

139. Id.

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141. See, e.g., Salter, Ammon J. & Martin, Ben R., The Economic Benefits of Publicly Funded Basic Research: A Critical Review, 30 Research Pol'y 509 (2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

142. See, e.g., Mowery, David C.et al., The Growth of Patenting and Licensing by U.S. Universities: An Assessment of the Effects of the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, 30 Research Pol'y 99, 117–18 (2001)Google Scholar.

143. See Hollis, Aidan & Pogge, Thomas, The Health Impact Fund: Making New Medicines Accessible to All 97–108 (Incentives for Global Health 2008), available at http://www.yale.edu/macmillan/igh/hif.html (an overview of various proposals to confront the problems posed by patents)Google Scholar.

144. See, e.g., Letter from Essential Inventions, Inc., to Who, Unaids, and The Global Fund (Jan. 17, 2005), available at http://www.essentialinventions.org/docs/eppa/cover17jan05.pdf (proposing the establishment of a patent pool for AIDS research and medicines).

145. See Boseley, supra note 100.

146. See Flynn, Seanet al., An Economic Justification for Open Access to Essential Medicine Patents in Developing Countries 13–22 (Univ. Calgary Dept. Econ., Working Paper 2009–2001), available at http://ideas.repec.org/p/clg/wpaper/2009-01.htmlGoogle ScholarPubMed.

147. See Outterson, supra note 116, at 160-61.

148. See, e.g., X-Prize Foundation, Ansari X Prize, http://space.xprize.org/ansari-x-prize (last visited Feb. 25, 2009) ($10 million prize for the first private organization to develop and demonstrate a reusable manned spacecraft that could be launched two times in two weeks).

149. See Hollis & Pogge, supra note 139.

150. May & Sell, supra note 8, at 19.