Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T10:38:49.081Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Judicial Selection and Criminal Punishment

Trial Court Elections, Sentencing, and Incarceration in the States

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 October 2022

Travis N. Taylor
Travis N. Taylor*
Affiliation:
University of Kentucky, USA
*
Contact the author at [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper develops and tests a theory that in states with judicial elections, criminal justice outcomes will be more punitive than in states without elections. Leveraging a data set previously unused in the judicial politics literature, I estimate time-series regressions of state sentencing and incarceration rates over a 38-year period while distinguishing between types of judicial elections to establish support for the theory. I find that states where trial judges are reelected are generally more punitive than states without judicial elections, and this punitiveness is in response to the public’s ideological preferences, indicating that elections serve as an important judicial accountability mechanism for citizens.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Law and Courts , Volume 9 , Issue 2 , Fall 2021 , pp. 305 - 335
Copyright
© 2021 Law and Courts Organized Section of the American Political Science Association. All rights reserved.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I wish to thank Mark Peffley, Justin Wedeking, Mike Zilis, Rick Waterman, and Chris Crumrine for their feedback on previous drafts of this paper. I am also deeply ingratiated to Brandon Bartels and the four anonymous reviewers for their comments during the review process. Feedback from all of these scholars made this manuscript a better final product. Remaining errors are my own.

References

Abbe, Owen G., Jay Goodliffe, Paul S. Herrnson, and Kelly D. Patterson. 2003. “Agenda Setting in Congressional Elections: The Impact of Issues and Campaigns on Voting Behavior.” Political Research Quarterly 56 (4): 419–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandyopadhyay, Siddhartha, and Bryan C. McCannon. 2014. “The Effect of the Election of Prosecutors on Criminal Trials.” Public Choice 161 (1–2): 141–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandyopadhyay, Siddhartha. 2015. “Prosecutorial Retention: Signaling by Trial.” Journal of Public Economic Theory 17 (2): 291–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 2000. “Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952–1996.” American Journal of Political Science 44 (1): 35–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 2008. The Irrational Electorate. Wilson Quarterly (Fall).Google Scholar
Baum, Lawrence. 1983. “Understanding Courts as Policy Makers.” Law and Social Inquiry 8 (1): 241–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, Lawrence. 2003. “Judicial Elections and Judicial Independence: The Voter’s Perspective.” Ohio State Law Journal 63 (13): 14–41.Google Scholar
Becher, Michael, and Michael Donnelly. 2013. “Economic Performance, Individual Evaluations, and the Vote: Investigating the Causal Mechanism.” Journal of Politics 75 (4): 968–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, Nathaniel, and Jonathan N. Katz. 1995. “What to Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series Cross-Section Data.” American Political Science Review 89 (3): 634–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, William D., Richard C. Fording, Evan J. Ringquist, Russell L. Hansen, and Carl Klarner. 2010. “Measuring Citizen and Government Ideology in the American States: A Reappraisal.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 10 (1): 117–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blake, William D. 2018. “Judicial Independence on Unelected State Supreme Courts.” Justice System Journal 39 (1): 21–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boldt, Ethan D., and Christina L. Boyd. 2018. “The Political Responsiveness of Violent Crime Prosecution.” Political Research Quarterly 71 (4): 936–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonneau, Chris W. 2007. “The Effects of Campaign Spending in State Supreme Court Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 60 (3): 489–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonneau, Chris W., and Melinda Gann Hall. 2009. In Defense of Judicial Elections. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brace, Paul, and Brent D. Boyea. 2008. “State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (2): 360–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brace, Paul, and Melinda Gann Hall. 1995. “Studying Courts Comparatively: The View from the American States.” Political Research Quarterly 48 (1): 5–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brambor, Thomas, William Roberts Clark, and Matt Golder. 2006. “Understanding Interaction Models: Improving Empirical Analysis.” Political Analysis 14 (1): 63–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldarone, Richard P., Brandice Canes-Wrone, and Tom S. Clark. 2009. “Partisan Labels and Democratic Accountability: An Analysis of State Supreme Court Abortion Decisions.” Journal of Politics 71 (2): 560–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes. 1960. The American Voter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Canes-Wrone, Brandice, Tom S. Clark, and Jason P. Kelly. 2014. “Judicial Selection and Death Penalty Decisions.” American Political Science Review 108 (1): 23–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canes-Wrone, Brandice, Tom S. Clark, and Jee-Kwang Park. 2012. “Judicial Independence and Retention Elections.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 28 (2): 211–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canes-Wrone, Brandice, Tom S. Clark, and Amy Semet. 2018. “Judicial Elections, Public Opinion, and Decisions on Lower-Salience Issues.” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 15 (4): 672–707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canon, Bradley C. 1972. “The Impact of Formal Selection Processes on the Characteristics of Judges—Reconsidered.” Law and Society Review 6 (4): 579–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlton, Alfred P., Jr. 2003. Justice in Jeopardy: Report of the American Bar Association Commission on the 21st Century Judiciary. Chicago: American Bar Association.Google Scholar
Choi, Stephen J., G. Mitu Gulati, and Eric A. Posner. 2010. “Professionals or Politicians: The Uncertain Empirical Case for an Elected Rather than Appointed Judiciary.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 26 (2): 290–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppolo, George. 2003. States That Elect Their Chief Prosecutors, ed. Office of Legislative Research. Hartford: Connecticut General Assembly.Google Scholar
Costelloe, Michael T., Ted Chiricos, and Marc Gertz. 2009. “Punitive Attitudes toward Criminals: Exploring the Relevance of Crime Salience and Economic Insecurity.” Punishment and Society 11 (1): 25–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Evan. 2018. “How Nonpartisan Ballot Design Conceals Partisanship: A Survey Experiment of School Board Members in Two States.” Political Research Quarterly 71 (1): 143–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, Jeff. 2009. “Issue Voting and Crime in Gubernatorial Elections.” Social Science Quarterly 90 (3): 632–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dancey, Logan, and Geoffrey Sheagley. 2013. “Heuristics Behaving Badly: Party Cues and Voter Knowledge.” American Journal of Political Science 57 (2): 312–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danziger, Shai, Jonathan Levav, and Liora Avnaim-Pesso. 2011. “Extraneous Factors in Judicial Decisions.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (17): 6689–892.Google ScholarPubMed
Delli Carpini, Michael X., and Scott Keeter. 1996. What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Democracy Fund Voter Study Group. 2017. Views of the Electorate Research Survey, December 2016. Washington, DC: Democracy Fund Voter Study Group.Google Scholar
Dumas, Tao L. 2016. “Contextualizing the ‘Black Box’: State Institutions, Trial Venue, and Civil Jury Verdicts.” Journal of Law and Courts 4 (2): 291–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enns, Peter K. 2014. “The Public’s Increasing Punitiveness and Its Influence on Mass Incarceration in the United States.” American Journal of Political Science 58 (4): 859–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enns, Peter K. 2016. Incarceration Nation: How the United States Became the Most Punitive Democracy in the World. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, Lee, and Jack Knight. 1998. The Choices Justices Make. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Ewald, Alec C. 2012. “Collateral Consequences in the American States.” Social Science Quarterly 93 (1): 211–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federal Judicial Caseload Statistics. 2015. United States Courts: 2015. United States Courts. https://www.uscourts.gov/statistics-reports/federal-judicial-caseload-statistics-2015.Google Scholar
Ferejohn, John A., and Morris P. Fiorina. 1974. “The Paradox of Not Voting: A Decision Theoretic Analysis.” American Political Science Review 68 (2): 525–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiorina, Morris P. 1981. Retrospective Voting in American National Elections. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, Brian T. 2018. “The Case for the Political Appointment of Judges.” In State Judicial Selection Series. Washington, DC: Federalist Society.Google Scholar
Flemming, Roy B. 1998. “Contested Terrains and Regime Politics: Thinking about America’s Trial Courts and Institutional Change.” Law and Social Inquiry 23 (4): 941–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fording, Richard C. 2018. “State Corrections Policy.” In Politics in the American States: A Comparative Analysis, ed. V. Gray, R. L. Hanson, and T. Kousser. Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Jennifer Lawless. 2011. “Gaining and Losing Interest in Running for Public Office: The Concept of Dynamic Political Ambition.” Journal of Politics 73 (2): 443–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, Lawrence M. 2009. “Benchmarks: Judges on Trial, Judicial Selection and Election.” DePaul Law Review 58 (2): 451–72.Google Scholar
Gambitta, Richard A. L., Marlynn L. May, and James C. Foster, eds. 1981. Governing through Courts. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Geyh, Charles Gardner. 2003. “Why Judicial Elections Stink.” Ohio State Law Journal 64 (1): 43–79.Google Scholar
Geyh, Charles Gardner. 2019. Who Is to Judge? The Perennial Debate over Whether to Elect or Appoint America’s Judges. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, James L. 2009. “‘New-Style’ Judicial Campaigns and the Legitimacy of State High Courts.” Journal of Politics 71 (4): 1285–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, James L. 2012. Electing Judges: The Surprising Effects of Campaigning on Judicial Legitimacy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, Henry R., and Craig F. Emmert. 1987. “Selection Systems and Judicial Characteristics: The Recruitment of State Supreme Court Judges.” Judicature 70 (4): 229–35.Google Scholar
Goelzhauser, Greg. 2016. Choosing State Supreme Court Justices: Merit Selection and the Consequences of Institutional Reform. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goelzhauser, Greg. 2018. “Classifying Judicial Selection Institutions.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 18 (2): 174–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Sanford C., and Gregory A. Huber. 2007. “The Effect of Electoral Competitiveness on Incumbent Behavior.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 2 (2): 107–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie. 2009. “The Long Reach of the Carceral State: The Politics of Crime, Mass Imprisonment, and Penal Reform in the United States and Abroad.” Law and Social Inquiry 34 (2): 439–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, Thomas. 2017. “The Influence of Legislative Reappointment on State Supreme Court Decision-Making.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 17 (3): 275–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haire, Susan B., and Laura P. Moyer. 2015. Diversity Matters: Judicial Policy Making in the U.S. Courts of Appeals. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Kermit L. 1984. “Progressive Reform and the Decline of Democratic Accountability: The Popular Election of State Supreme Court Judges, 1850–1920.” Law and Social Inquiry 9 (2): 345–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Matthew E. K., and Jason Harold Windett. 2015. “Understanding Judicial Power: Divided Government, Institutional Thickness, and High-Court Influence on State Incarceration.” Journal of Law and Courts 3 (1): 167–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Melinda Gann. 2001. “State Supreme Courts in American Democracy: Probing the Myths of Judicial Reform.” American Political Science Review 95 (2): 315–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Melinda Gann, and Chris W. Bonneau. 2006. “Does Quality Matter? Challengers in State Supreme Court Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (1): 20–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinkle, Rachael K., and Michael J. Nelson. 2016. “The Transmission of Legal Precedent among State Supreme Courts in the Twenty-First Century.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 16 (4): 391–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber, Gregory A., and Sanford C. Gordon. 2004. “Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind when It Runs for Office?” American Journal of Political Science 48 (2): 247–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, Will, Stephen Farrall, Emily Gray, and Colin Hay. 2017. “Penal Populism and the Public Thermostat: Crime, Public Punitiveness, and Public Policy.” Governance 30 (3): 463–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Devon. 2001. “Punitive Attitudes on Crime: Economic Insecurity, Racial Prejudice, or Both?” Sociological Focus 34 (1): 33–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, David, and Lawrence Baum. 2001. “Ballot Information and Voting Decisions in Judicial Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 54 (4): 709–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kowal, John F. 2016. Judicial Selection for the 21st Century. New York: Brennan Center for Justice.Google Scholar
Kritzer, Herbert M. 2016. “Impact of Judicial Elections on Judicial Decisions.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 12:353–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, Richard R., David J. Andersen, and David P. Redlawsk. 2008. “An Exploration of Correct Voting in Recent U.S. Presidential Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (2): 395–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, Richard R., and David P. Redlawsk. 1997. “Voting Correctly.” American Political Science Review 91 (3): 585–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenz, Gabriel S. 2012. Follow the Leader? How Voters Respond to Politicians’ Policies and Performance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitt, Steven D. 1997. “Using Electoral Cycles in Police Hiring to Estimate the Effect of Police on Crime.” American Economic Review 87 (3): 270–90.Google Scholar
Lewis-Beck, Michael S., William G. Jacoby, Helmut Norpoth, and Herbert F. Weisberg. 2008. The American Voter Revisited. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, Claire S. H. 2013. “Preferences and Incentives of Appointed and Elected Public Officials: Evidence from State Trial Court Judges.” American Economic Review 103 (4): 1360–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mather, Lynn. 1998. “Theorizing about Trial Courts: Lawyers, Policymaking, and Tobacco Litigation.” Law and Social Inquiry 23 (4): 897–940.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayhew, David R. 1974. Congress: The Electoral Connection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
McCannon, Bryan C. 2013. “Prosecutor Elections, Mistakes, and Appeals.” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 10 (4): 696–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKenzie, Mark Jonathan, and Ryan J. Rebe. 2017. “Trial Court Campaign Messaging in a Post-White Environment: An Analysis of Candidate Websites in Contested Elections.” In Judicial Elections in the 21st Century, ed. C. W. Bonneau and M. G. Hall. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Moore, Nina M. 2015. The Political Roots of Racial Tracking in American Criminal Justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mummolo, Jonathan, and Erik Peterson. 2018. “Improving the Interpretation of Fixed Effects Regression Results.” Political Science Research and Methods 6 (4): 829–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Center for State Courts. 2018. Judicial Selection in the States. http://www.judicialselection.us/.Google Scholar
National Research Council. 2014. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States, ed. J. Travis, B. Western, and S. Redburn. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Nelson, Michael J. 2014. “Responsive Justice? Retention Elections, Prosecutors, and Public Opinion.” Journal of Law and Courts 2 (1): 117–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nownes, Anthony J., and Colin Glennon. 2016. “An Experimental Investigation of How Judicial Elections Affect Public Faith in the Judicial System.” Law and Social Inquiry 41 (1): 37–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oakley, Maureen Rand. 2009. “Agenda Setting and State Policy Diffusion: The Effects of Media Attention, State Court Decisions, and Policy Learning on Fetal Killing Policy.” Social Science Quarterly 90 (1): 164–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, Joel. 2004. The Abolition of White Democracy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Park, Kyung H. 2017. “The Impact of Judicial Elections in the Sentencing of Black Crime.” Journal of Human Resources 52 (4): 998–1031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 2010. Justice in America: The Separate Reality of Blacks and Whites. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Percival, Garrick L. 2010. “Ideology, Diversity, and Imprisonment: Considering the Influence of Local Politics on Racial and Ethnic Minority Incarceration Rates.” Social Science Quarterly 91 (4): 1063–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrocik, John R. 1996. “Issue Ownership in Presidential Elections, with a 1980 Case Study.” American Journal of Political Science 40 (3): 825–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrocik, John R., William L. Benoit, and Glenn J. Hansen. 2003. “Issue Ownership and Presidential Campaigning, 1952–2000.” Political Science Quarterly 118 (4): 599–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pozen, David E. 2008. “The Irony of Judicial Elections.” Columbia Law Review 108 (2): 265–330.Google Scholar
Rachlinski, Jeffrey J., Sheri Lyn Johnson, Andrew J. Wistrich, and Chris Guthrie. 2009. “Does Unconscious Racial Bias Affect Trial Judges?” Notre Dame Law Review 84: 1195–246.Google Scholar
Redman, Shane M. 2017. “Descriptive Gender Representation and Legitimacy in U.S. Trial Courts.” Justice System Journal 38 (4): 311–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenfeld, Richard. 2009. “Crime is the Problem: Homicide, Acquisitive, Crime, and Economic Conditions.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 25 (3): 287–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenfeld, Richard, and Robert Fornango. 2007. “The Impact of Economic Conditions on Robbery and Property Crime: The Role of Consumer Sentiment.” Criminology 45 (4): 735–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rottman, David B., ed. 2015. Who Trusts the Trial Courts, To What Extent, and Why? Vol. 62, ed. B. H. Bornstein and A. J. Tomkins. New York: Springer International.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sample, James, Lauren Jones, and Rachel Weiss. 2007. “The New Politics of Judicial Elections 2006: How 2006 Was the Most Threatening Year Yet to the Fairness and Impartiality of Our Courts—and How Americans Are Fighting Back.” New York: Justice at Stake Campaign, Brennan Center for Justice, and National Money in State Politics.Google Scholar
Schaefer, Shelly S., and Christopher Uggen. 2016. “Blended Sentencing Laws and the Punitive Turn in Juvenile Justice.” Law and Social Inquiry 41 (2): 435–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffner, Brian F., Matthew Streb, and Gerald Wright. 2001. “Teams without Uniforms: The Nonpartisan Ballot in State and Local Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 54 (1): 7–30.Google Scholar
Schauffler, Richard Y., Robert C. LaFountain, Shauna M. Strickland, Kathryn A. Holt, and Kathryn J. Genthon. 2016. “Examining the Work of State Courts: An Overview of 2015 State Court Caseloads.” Washington, DC: National Center for State Courts.Google Scholar
Schoenfeld, Heather. 2018. Building the Prison State: Race & The Politics of Mass Incarceration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segal, Jeffrey A., and Harold J. Spaeth. 2002. The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model Revisited. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shugerman, Jed Handlesman. 2012. The People’s Courts: Pursuing Judicial Independence in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sides, John. 2006. “The Origins of Campaign Agendas.” British Journal of Political Science 36 (3): 407–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Kevin B. 2004. “The Politics of Punishment: Evaluating Political Explanations of Incarceration Rates.” Journal of Politics 66 (3): 925–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Streb, Matthew J. 2007. “Partisan Involvement in Partisan and Nonpartisan Trial Court Elections.” In Running for Judge: The Rising Political, Financial, and Legal Stakes of Judicial Elections, 96–114. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Streb, Matthew J., and Brian Frederick. 2009. “Conditions for Competition in Low-Information Judicial Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 62 (3): 523–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tesler, Michael. 2015. “Priming Predispositions and Changing Policy Positions: An Account of When Mass Opinion Is Primed or Changed.” American Journal of Political Science 59 (4): 806–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
US Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2017. National Prisoner Statistics, 1978–2015, ICPSR36657-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research.Google Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., and David O. Sears. 2005. “Old Times There Are Not Forgotten: Race and Partisan Realignment in the Contemporary South.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (3): 672–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whaley, Sean. 2014. “Nevada Appeals Court Draws 36 Applicants.” Las Vegas Review-Journal. https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-nevada/nevada-appeals-court-draws-36-applicants/.Google Scholar
Williams, Margaret. 2007. “Women’s Representation on State Trial and Appellate Courts.” Social Science Quarterly 88 (5): 1192–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodson, Benjamin. 2017. “The Two Opposing Effects of Judicial Elections on Legitimacy Perceptions.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 17 (1): 24–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Ronald F. 2012. “Persistent Localism in the Prosecutor Services of North Carolina.” In Prosecutors and Politics: A Comparative Perspective, ed. Michael Tonry, 211–64. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Yates, Jeff, and Richard Fording. 2005. “Politics and State Punitiveness in Black and White.” Journal of Politics 67 (4): 1099–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaller, John R. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Taylor Supplementary material
Download undefined(File)
File 605.5 KB