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United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900–1910*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2009

Michael J. Gonzales
Michael J. Gonzales
Affiliation:
Professor of History and Dìrector of the Center for Latino and Latin American Studies at Northern Illinois University
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Extract

No topic encapsulates better the fundamental contradiction in capitalist development in Porfirian Mexico than the turbulent history of the copper industry. Within the space of a few years, the industry simultaneously experienced rapid growth, labour conflict and political controversy with international implications. This historical dynamic was unleashed, in part, by the Mexican government's policy of attracting overseas investors to Mexico through generous concessions and tax breaks that facilitated foreign control over key industries. The privileged position that public policy afforded foreign companies resulted in a nationalist backlash and exacerbated tension between native labour and foreign capital. The famous strike at Cananea, Sonora, in 1906 brought to national attention the grievances of Mexican workers over wage scales that favoured foreign workers over natives, falling real wages, and the power and arrogance of United States companies in Mexico. The strike became a scandal when armed North Americans from nearby Arizona crossed the border and assisted local authorities in crushing Mexican workers. This violation of Mexican sovereignty caused a storm of protest from both liberals and conservatives and unsettled the Díaz regime on the eve of the Mexican Revolution.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 26 , Issue 3 , October 1994 , pp. 651 - 681
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

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References

1 The most detailed and well-documented analysis of Cananea's miners is provided by Sariego, Juan Luis, Enclaves y minerales en el norte de México (Mexico City, 1988)Google Scholar. His discussion of the 1906 strike appears on pages 131–7. The conflict is also analysed by Camín, Héctor Aguilar in his brilliant political history of Sonora, La frontera nómada (Mexico City, 1985), pp. 114–24Google Scholar. Perhaps the best traditional analysis in English is provided by Raat, W. Dirk, Revoltosos (Texas Station, 1981), ch. 3Google Scholar.

2 The first to challenge the traditional viewpoint was Anderson, Rodney in Outcasts in Their Own Land (DeKalb, 1976), pp. 110–17Google Scholar. Anderson's argument is placed in a broader context and slightly modified by Knight, Alan in his monumental study of the Mexican Revolution. See, The Mexican Revolution, vol. I (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 108–18Google Scholar.

3 See below for details on the growth of the copper industry. Demand for copper increased following Faraday's discovery of electromagnetism, and the practical application of electricity by Edison and others. Copper proved ideal for use in motors, generators, wiring, cable, switch gear, particularly in the communication and transportation industries. See, Hildebrand, George H. and Mangum, Garth L., Capital and Labor in American Copper,1845–1990 (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 94–5Google Scholar.

4 Sariego, Enclaves y minerales.

5 Ruíz, Ramón Eduardo, The People of Sonora and Yankee Capitalists (Tucson, 1988)Google Scholar.

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7 Bernstein, Marvin offers this assessment of the 1892 law: ‘Since miners were free to claim as much land as they could pay taxes on; work a mine in any manner they might see fit; open or close as their economic personal desires dictated; and employ any number of men they might wish, the mineowner and the speculator in Mexico attained a position of almost complete liberty of action’. The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890–1950 (Albany, 1964), p. 28Google Scholar.

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9 William Randolph Hearst to his mother (no day or month given), 1886, Hearst Family Papers, file 82168c, folder 10, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Quoted by permission of the Bancroft Library.

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11 Bernstein, Mexican Mining Industry, p. 60. According to Cananea's management the Moctezuma Copper Company, the Phelps-Dodge subsidiary that owned Nacozari, received ‘similar concessions’ to those granted to Cananea, which are described below in the text. See: ‘Statement of the Cananea Consolidated Copper Company, S.A.’, re: ‘How the Company has been Affected by Mexican Revolutionary Conditions, Taxation, etc.’, presented before the ‘Honorable Members of the Mexican–American International Commission’, 28 Sept 1916, New York City, George Young, Secretary. Cananea Papers, Centro Regional de Sonora (hereinafter cited as CRS, Cananea), Hermosillo, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel 4.

12 Cleland, Robert Glass, A History of Phelps-Dodge 1834–1950 (New York, 1952), pp.131–50Google Scholar.

13 Sonnichsen, C. L., Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson, 1974)Google Scholar.

14 Nevertheless, these were disputed claims and he did not gain clear title to them until a year later. W. C. Greenee to C. E. Tyler, 8 April 1900, Hermosillo to Bisbee, Cananea Company Archives, Cananea, Sonora (hereafter cited as CCA) 1900 Documental 0020; S. M. Aguirre to W. C. Greene, 19 April 1900(telegram), Bisbee to Cananea, CCA, 1900 Documental 0020. For Greene's years back east and in Arizona see Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene, pp. 1–28.

15 W. C. Greene to George Mitchell, 26 July 1901, New York to Cananea, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Cananea Consolidated Copper Company Papers (hereafter cited as AHS, Cananea) Box 1, MS 1032; W. C. Greene to George Mitchell, 12 August 1901, New York to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, Box 1, MS 1032; Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene, pp. 28–47.

16 General Superintendent to Dr L. D. Ricketts, 10 April 1920, Cananea to Warren, Arizona, CCA, 1920 Documental 0063.

17 W. C. Greene to A. S. Dwight, 15 Feb. 1904, New York to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, Box 1, MS 1032.

18 Document dated 23 March 1904, CCA, 1904 Documental 0043.

19 W. C. Greene to A. S. Dwight, 15 Feb. 1904, New York to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, Box 1, MS 1032.

20 George Young, Secretary, to T. Evans, General Superintendent, 29 April 1921, CCA, 1921 Documental 0089.

21 Ibid.

22 Letter dated 25 April 1908, CCA, 1908 Documental 0001; General Manager to Tomás Macmanus, 21 June 1909, Cananea to Mexico City, CCA, 1909 Documental 0042.

23 J. W. Rennie to George Mitchell, 25 August 1901, Cananea to New York, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel 1; General Manager, Cananea Copper Co. to Señor Coronel Juan Fenochio, 28 June 1902, Cananea to Hermosillo, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel 1. Also see Jason H. Kirk, Manager, Mining Division, to W. C. Greene, 1 Aug. 1902, Cananea to New York, Cananea Consolidated Copper Co. Records, 1898–1969 (separate collection donated by former company employee Robert F. Torrance), AHS, MS 1033, Box 1.

24 Quoted in the finding aid to the Cananea Consolidated Copper Company Records, 1898–1969, AHS, MS 1033, Box 1.

25 A. S. Dwight, Gerente General, to Pablo Rubio, Comisario, 30 Jan. 1905, AHS, MS 1032, Box 3; Romero Gil, El Boleo, pp. 113–38.

26 His best case is that in 1917 over one-half of the workers had been at the mines for over ten years. But this still may only suggest that these workers sought the security of steady wage employment during the turbulent Revolution. See Romero Gil, El Boleo, Table 22, p. 136.

27 Ibid., pp. 205–8.

28 ‘Labor Conditions on Haciendas in Porfirian Mexico: Some Trends and Tendencies’, Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 54, no. 1 (Feb., 1974), pp. 1–47. Increased demand for labour during harvests and round-ups, however, created conditions that were conducive to short-term peonage.

29 Ruiz, People of Sonora, pp. 110–13.

30 For example, see the 1903 notice for workers in AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 1.

31 Dwight, A. S., Gerente General, to Don Pablo Rubio, Comisario, Ronquillo, 30 01 1905Google Scholar, AHS, MS 1032, Box 3.

32 Employees by nationality, 30 July 1902, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel 4.

33 Employees by Nationality, 30 July 1902, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel 4; General Timekeeper to A. S. Dwight, General Manager, 8 June 1906, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72–150, Reel 1.

34 Sariego, Enclavesy minerales, pp. 119–22.

35 Ibid., p. 124.

36 Ibid., p. 125.

37 Ibid., p. 124.

38 See below, Table 7.

39 For example, Mexicans continued to live in inferior housing and were never appointed to managerial positions. See below for details on the dual wage scale for foreigners and natives.

40 Sariego, Enclavesy minerales, pp. 119–22.

41 Brown, Jonathan, ‘Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico’, American Historical Review, vol. 98, no. 5 (06 1993), pp. 786–818CrossRefGoogle Scholar, makes this point within a more general context.

42 D. W. Brown to L. D. Ricketts, 16 March 1906, Benson, Arizona to Cananea, CCA, 1906 Documental 0118.

43 Sariego, Enclaves y minerales, p. 122.

44 These records list ‘Mexican’ labourers, but may have meant ‘Mexican-American’. Journal ‘Contract Wages’, Arizona Copper Co., March 1905, University of Arizona Special Collections (hereinafter cited as UASC), vol. 9;, Az 146; Selim W. Franklin, President, South San Xavier Copper Co., to William McDermott, Esq., Twin Buttes Mining and Smelting Co. (a subsidiary of Phelps-Dodge), 4 April 1907, Tucson to Tucson, UASC, Twin Buttes Mining and Smelting Co., Correspondence, Box 2, 1904, 1906, Jan. 1907 to May 1908, Az 183; Payroll Sheets, UASC, Twin Buttes Mining and Smelting Co., 1904, Box 34, Az 183.

45 Huginnie, Yvette Andrea, ‘“Strikitos”: Race, Class, and Work in the Arizona Copper Industry, 1870–1920’, unpubl. PhD diss., Yale University, 1991Google Scholar. I am grateful to Professor Evelyn Hu-DeHart for this reference.

46 Sariego, Enclaves y minerales, p. 122.

47 This information is now filed differently than cited by Sariego. See, Wages Scales, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032.

48 Fraser-Campbell, Evan, ‘The Management of Mexican Labor’, The Engineering and Mining Journal vol. 91, no. 22 (3 06 1911), pp. 1104–5Google Scholar; Letter to T. Evans, General Superintendent, 22 April 1921, CCA, 1921 Documental 0093; Labor by Contract, Sept. 1921, CCA, 1921 Documental 0080; Series of contracts written in 1923 in CCA, 1924 Documenntal 0041; W. J. Mitchell to George Kingdom, 19 Sept. 1915, CCA, 1915 Documental 007.

49 Ingersoll, Ralph, In and Under Mexico (New York, 1924), pp. 59–65Google Scholar.

50 Wyman, Mark, Hard Rock Epic (Berkeley, 1979)Google Scholar; Dubofsky, Melvyn, ‘The Origins of Western Working Class Radicalism, 1890–1905’, Labor History, no. 7 (1966), pp. 132–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar. I am grateful to Dr Mildred Beik for the latter reference and for her insights into the history of US miners.

51 Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, ch. 9.

52 Mellinger, Phil, ‘“The Men Have Become Organizers”: Labor Conflict and Unionization in the Mexican Mining Communities of Arizona, 1900–1915’ Western Historical Quarterly vol. 23, no. 3 (08 1992), pp. 323–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 Wyman, Hard Rock Epic; Byrkit, James W., Forging the Copper Collar (Tucson, 1982)Google Scholar; and below.

54 Mellinger, ‘The Men Have Become Organizers’.

55 Memoirs of William Field Staunton, II, ‘The First Fifty Years, 1860–1910’, UASC, AZ 152, Box 1, Personal Material.

56 Ibid., pp. 120–5.

57 Mellinger, ‘The Men Have Become Organizers’.

58 Huginnie presents an excellent discussion of racial, job, and social discrimination against Mexican miners in Arizona. In 1916 the WFM changed its name to the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers and became more conservative. Many Arizona miners were subsequently attracted to the Industrial Workers of the World. See Huginnie, ‘Strikitos’, chs 5 and 6.

59 Dwyer, John, ‘The Greene Consolidated Coppe r Mines’, The Engineering and Mining Journal (03, 1903), p. 416Google Scholar; Raat, Reveltosos, p. 75.

60 See, Official Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the Western Federation of Miners, 27 May 1905, Salt Lake City, Utah. Special Collections, University of Colorado, Boulder.

61 ‘List of Mechanics who Quit Work on April 21, 1902’, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel 4; Anson W. Burchard to A. B. Wadleigh, 1 May 1902, Cananea to Denver, AHS, Cananea, MS 1052, Box 1; Anson W. Burchard to Myron M. Parker, 19 May 1902, Cananea to Washington, D.C., AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 1.

62 Anson W. Burchard to H. W. Hardings, 19 May 1902, Cananea to Washington, D.C., AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 1.

63 Anson W. Burchard to Myron M. Parker, 19 May 1902, Cananea to Washington, D.C., AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 1.

64 Coord, Eugenia Meyer., La Lucha Obrera en Cananea 1906, 2nd ed. (Mexico City, 1990), p. 25Google Scholar; Aguilar Camfn, La frontera nómada, p. 99. Sonora's legislature was tightly controlled by provincial elites. Thus, in the words of Aguilar Camín (p. 104): ‘En un lapso de treinta y dos años a contar de 1879, solo sesenta y cuatro personas ocuparon los posibles 208 puestos en dieciseis legislatures de trece escaños cada una. Entre los diputados de mayor incidencia se contaban los hermanos, primos y semicompadres de (General) Luis E. Torres.…’

65 Emilio Kosterlitzky to William C. Greene, 17 Jan 1901, Magdalena, Sonora to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 2; James H. Kirk, Superintendent, to H. C. Rolfe, 25 May 1902, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 1; George Young to Colonel E. Kosterlitzky, 2 March 1908, Cananea to Magdalena, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 2; Emilio Kosterlitzky to George Young, 31 Aug. 1908, Agua Prieta to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 2; Emilio Kosterlitzky to George Young, 24 Dec. 1907, Magdalena to Cananea (telegram), AHS, MS 1032, Box 2.

66 Kosterlitzky, Emilio to Macmanus, Ygnacio {company attorney}, 26 09. 1902Google Scholar, Magdalena to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 2; Emilio Kosterlitzky to George Young, 29 Feb. 1908, Magdalena to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 2; Emilio Kosterlitzky to George Young, 31 Aug. 1908, Agua Prieta to Cananea, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 2.

67 Sariego, Enclaves y minerales, pp. 129–37; Meyer, coord., La Lucha Obrera, pp. 62–7; Aguilar Camín, La frontera nómada, pp. 115–23. Hart, John Mason, Revolutionary Mexico (Berkeley, 1987), pp. 63–8Google Scholar, attributes influence to the PLM as well as to agitators from the ‘Industrial Workers of the World and other radical workers from the southwest’. However, he presents no particulars about the latter groups. Raat, Kevoltosos, ch. 3, offers the most thorough traditional interpretation in English.

68 W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, 11 June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0050.

69 See, Official Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the Western Federation of Miners, 27 May 190;, Salt Lake City, Utah. Special Collections, University of Colorado at Boulder Library.

70 Young, George, Secretary, ‘Summary of Labor Conflicts at Cananea, 1906–1913’, 1 02. 1913Google Scholar, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032.

71 Among other things, the PLM advocated the 8-hour day, indemnities for job-related accidents, child labour laws, and equal pay for Mexicans and foreigners. Meyer, coord., La Lucha Obrera, pp. 52–3.

72 Knight, The Mexican Revolution vol. I, pp. 44–7; MacLachlan, Colin M., Anarchism and the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley, 1991)Google Scholar, for a discussion of the persecution of Flores Magon in the United States.

73 Aguilar Camín, Lafrontera nómada, pp. 115–19.

74 Meyer, coord., La Lucha Obrera, p. 66.

75 W. C. Greene to Mark L. Sperry, 28 June 1906, CCA, 1906 Documental 0086.

76 Quoted in Aguilar Camín, La frontera nómada, p. 118.

77 Sariego, Enclaves y minerales, pp. 131–5.

78 Aguilar Camín, La frontera nómada, p. 119; Young, George, ‘Summary of Labor Conflicts at Cananea, 1906–1913’, 1 02. 1913Google Scholar, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032.

79 Young, George, ‘Summary of Labor Conflicts at Cananea, 1906–1913’, 1 02. 1913Google Scholar, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032.

80 Hart, Revolutionary Mexico, p. 63.

81 Young, George, ‘Summary of Labor Conflicts at Cananea, 1906–1913’, 1 02. 1913Google Scholar, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032.

82 Aguilar Camín, La frontera nómada, p. 119.

83 Strike leaders to President to the C.C.C. Co., S.A., 1 June 1906, AHS, Cananea, MS 1032, Box 1.

84 See, Calderón, Esteban Baca, Juicio sobre la guerra del yaqui y génesis de la huelga de Cananea (Mexico City, 1956), p. 40Google Scholar. Cited in Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land, pp. 115–16.

85 This is the position of the revisionists. See Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land, pp. 110–17; and Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. I, pp. 108–18.

86 W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, 11 June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0050.

87 Ibid.

88 An anonymous reader for this Journal believes that Baca Calderón forced strikers to adopt a more conservative position. However, the evidence only shows that the formal list of demands presented to Greene did not contain the political rhetoric of the broadside distributed the night before. There is no evidence that Baca Calderón had forced strikers to modify their demands, or that the strike leaders who approached Baca Calderón were the authors of the broadside. Baca Calderón, well-known for his fiery political rhetoric, may or may not have favoured a more conservative position.

89 Strike leaders to the President of the C.C.C. Co., S.A., 1 June 1906, AHS, Cananea, M S 1032, Box 1.

90 W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, 11 June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0050.

91 Statement by Arthur S. Dwight, 6 June 1906, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel Dwight claimed that his shotgun accidentally discharged when he dropped it.

92 George Young, ‘Summary of Labor Conflicts at Cananea, 1906–1913’, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032; W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, 11 June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0050.

93 W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, 11 June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0050.

94 W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, 11 June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0050; Young, George, ‘Summary of Labor Conflicts at Cananea, 1906–1913’, 1 02. 1913Google Scholar, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032; Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene, pp. 188–207; Aguilar Camín, La frontera nómada, p. 120.

95 Ibid.

96 W. C. Greene to Don Enrique C. Creel, Governor of Chihuahua, 10 June 1906, CCA, 1906 Documental 0046.

97 W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, II June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0050.

98 Ibid.

99 Aguilar Camín, La frontera nómada, p. 121.

100 W. C. Greene to Don Enrique C. Creel, Governor of Chihuahua, 10 June 1906, CCA, 1906 Documental 0046; W. E. D. Stokes to W. C. Greene, 21 June 1906, CCA, 1906 Documental 0086

101 Mexican Herald, 24 June 1906, pp. 1–2.

102 For example, the pro-cleric daily El Estandarte of San Luis Potosí condemned Izábal and compared the use of Arizona Rangers to the US invasion in 1847, while the business and commercial weekly El Progreso Latino claimed that Cananea's strikers were struggling for their rights against foreigners. Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land, pp. 112–13.

103 Knight, Mexican Revolution, vol. I, p. 148.

104 Aguilar Camfn, La frontera nómada, p. 95.

105 Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land, pp. 114–17.

106 Ibid., pp. 115–16.

107 Sariego, Enclaves y minerales, p. 137.

108 There is abundant evidence for this in the surviving papers of the Cananea mines. See my manuscript ‘United States Copper Companies and the Mexican Revolution, 1906–1924’.

109 Myron M. Parker to Colonel W. C. Greene, 5 June 1906, CCA, 1906 Documental 0044.

110 W. C. Greene to Mark L. Sperry, 28 June 1906, CCA, 1906 Documental 0086.

111 See the series of letters written to creditors in Dec. 1906, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel I. On problems collecting insurance see, Young, George A. to Cole, D., Assistant General Manager, 9 08. 1907Google Scholar, CRS, Cananea, Microfilm # 72/150, Reel I.

112 Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene, pp. 210–1;. Sonnichsen's narrative is based on newspaper, documentary and secondary sources. See his notes, p. 297.

113 Ibid., pp. 215–19; 255. Sonnichsen's narrative is based on documentary and newspaper sources. See his notes, p. 297.

114 Hildebrand and Mangum, Capital and Labor, pp. 65–71.

115 The Mexican Mining journal, vol. 8, no. 3 (March, 1909), pp. 11–12.

116 Hildebrand and Mangum, Capital and Labor, p. 69.

117 The Mexican Mining Journal, vol. 6, no. 10 (October, 1907), p. 19.

118 The Cananea Consolidated Copper Company, S.A., Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Reduction Division for the year 1908, CCA, 1908 Documental 0002.

119 Ibid..

120 Vol. 8, no. 1 (April, 1909), p. 28.

121 Ricketts, L. D., ‘The Cananea Consolidated Copper Co. in 1908’, The Engineering and Mining Journal, vol. 87, no. 14 (5 04 1909), pp. 701–5Google Scholar.

122 The Cananea Consolidated Copper Company, S.A., Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Reduction Division for the year 1908, CCA, 1908 Documental 0002; ‘Wage Scales’, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032.

123 Ricketts, L. D., ‘The Cananea Consolidated Copper Co., in 1908’, The Engineering and Mining Journal, vol. 87, no. 14 (3 04 1909), p. 705Google Scholar.

124 Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, pp. 78–83.

125 The Cananea Consolidated Copper Company, S.A., Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Reduction Division for the year 1908', CCA, 1908 Documental 0002.

126 Young, George, ‘Summary of Labor Conflicts at Cananea, 1906–1913’, 1 02. 1913Google Scholar, CCA, 1916 Documental 0032; W. C. Greene to Colonel Myron M. Parker, 11 June 1906, Cananea to Washington, D.C., CCA, 1906 Documental 0002.

127 Official Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Convention of the Western Federation of Miners, Denver, Colorado, 10 June to 3 July 1907, p. 195, Special Collections, University of Colorado at Boulder Library.

128 For the Revolution in Sonora, see Aguilar Camín, La frontera nómada.

129 See my manuscript ‘United States Copper Companies and the Mexican Revolution, 1906–1924’.