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North—South: Trade Policy, Regionalism and Caudillismo in Post-Independence Peru*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2009

Paul Gootenberg
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The thesis of this article, following that venerable geopolitical theory of Montesquieu, is deceptively simple. In post-independence Peru, the fundamental faultline of regional conflict was a north–south one, that of the limeño north versus the arequipeño southern coast. The sources of north–south differentiation were many: distinctive institutional legacies of colonialism, the centrifugal force of 1820s balkanisation, contrasting new forms of overseas penetration, the dichotomous pull of Pacific and Atlantic basin economies, overarching patterns of regional rise and decline, and rival visions for integrating the new country of Peru. By the 1830s, however, the north–south conflict had crystallised and polarised around one central issue: commercial policy or, to put it at its simplest, the north's ‘protectionism’ versus the south's ‘free trade’.

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Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 23 , Issue 2 , May 1991 , pp. 273 - 308
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1991

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References

1 Montesquieu's notion of geographic determinism (De l'esprit des lois, bks. xiv–xviii) appears to retain prestige even in the late twentieth century; see, for example, frequent recourse to a North—South division in recent world commissions on development.

2 This essay builds on research in my book Between Silver and Guano: Commercial Policy and the State in Post-Independence Peru (Princeton, 1989)Google Scholar and ‘Merchants, Foreigners, and the State: the Origins of Trade Policies in Post-Independence Peru’, unpubl. PhD diss., Univ. of Chicago, 1985. Primary research is chiefly from the Archivo General de la Nación, Lima (henceforth AGN, secs. H-1, H-4 and H-8); Archivo Municipal de Lima (AML); Archivo General de Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores del Perú (ARE); British consular despatches, Foreign Office, Series 61 (FO 61/vol.); US ministerial and consular reports, Record Group 54, Department of State (cited as T52/vol., M154/Vol.); French Correspondance Consulaire et Commerciale, Lima (CCC/vol.); and the era's extensive periodical and pamphlet literature. These sources are sparingly cited below.

3 For such issues, see Bonilla, Heraclio, Rio, Lía del and Zevallos, Pilar Ortiz de, ‘Comercio Libre y crisis de la economía andina: el caso del Cuzco’, Histórica 2 (06 1978), pp. 1–25Google Scholar; Gootenberg, Paul, ‘The Social Origins of Protectionism and Free Trade in Nineteenth-Century Lima’, Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 14 (11. 1982), pp. 329–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bonilla, Heraclio,‘Continuidad y cambio en la organizatión política del Estado en el Perú independiente’, in 1. Buisson, et al. (eds.), Probkmas de la formación del Estado y de la Nación en Hispanoamérica (Cologne, 1984), pp. 481–98Google Scholar; Javier, Tantaleán A., Política económico-financiera j la formación del estado: siglo xix (Lima, 1983)Google Scholar; Berg, Ronald and Weaver, Frederick S., ‘Toward a Reinterpretation of Political Change in Peru During the First Century of Independence’, Journal of Inter American Studies and World Affairs, vol. 20 (02. 1978), pp. 69–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Baltazar, Caravedo M., ‘El problema del centralismo en el Perú republicano’, Análisis, vol. 7 (1979), pp. 19–51.Google Scholar

4 In short, there are many possible angles in early state-building, most of them still unexplored: fiscal, constitutional, doctrinal, diplomatic, ethnic etc. For the mysteries of initial caudillos, regional sociology, and politics, see surveys by Walker, Charles, ‘The Myth of Chaotic Charisma: Caudillismo in Post-Independence Peru’ (ms., Chicago, 1986)Google Scholar and Quiroz, Alfonso, ‘Estructura económica y desarrollos regionales de la clase dominante, 1821–1850’, in Galindo, Alberto Flores (ed.), Independencia y revolutión (Lima, 1987), vol. 2, pp. 201–68Google Scholar; for regional history debates, consult Miller, Rory (ed.), Region and Class in Modern Peruvian History (Liverpool, 1987)Google Scholar, esp. chapters by R. Miller and J. Fisher. Current research by M. Remy, M. Glave, N. Manrique, C. Contreras, J. Deustua, D. Cahill, N. Jacobsen, C. Méndez, J. Urrutia (and others) is just moving us beyond this black box picture of regional interests and identity.

5 Macera, Pablo, ‘Las plantaciones azucareras andinas (1821–1875)’, in Trabajos de Historia (Lima, 1977), vol. 4, pp. 25–91Google Scholar; Engelsen, Juan Rolf, ‘Social Aspects of Agricultural Expansion in Coastal Peru, 1825–1878’, unpubl. PhD diss., Univ. of California—Los Angeles, 1977, chs. 1–2Google Scholar; AML, ‘Comisión de agricultura a la Junta Departamental’, 16 Sept. 1829; T52/1, Larned to Van Buren, 5 March 1830; Pando, J. M., Reclamción de los vulnerados derechos de los hacendados de la provincias litorales del Departamento de Lima (Lima, Concha, 1833).Google Scholar For export record, see Bonilla, Heraclio, ‘La coyuntura comercial del siglo xix en el Perú’, Desarrollo económico, vol. 46 (1972), Tables 5–7.Google Scholar

6 ‘Tratado de Comercio entre el Perú y el Chile’, El Redactor Peruano (Lima), 25 05 1836Google Scholar; ‘Observaciones sobre el Tratado de Comercio que se piensa hacer entre el Perú y el Chile’, ElMercurio Peruano (Lima), 16 Feb. 1828Google Scholar; ‘Comercio y fábricas’, El Telégrafo de Lima, all May 1828; X.Y.Z., Reflexiones sobre la ley de prohibiciones (Lima, Masías, 1829)Google Scholar; CCC/I, Barrère, 15 Nov. 1830, 26 Aug. 1831. A mixed view from the far north is Vera, José A. García, ‘Aduanas y comerciantes: Trujillo 1796–1836’ (ms., CLASCO, 1987).Google Scholar Throughout the period, 1 US dollar = 1 Peruvian peso, and a $ sign is used interchangeably.

7 On Lima artisan influence, see Gootenberg, Paul, ‘Artisans and Merchants: the Making of an Open Economy in Lima, Peru, 1830 to 1860’, unpubl. MPhil thesis, Oxford, 1981, chs. 3–5Google Scholar; for range of northern/Lima protectionists, see Los Clamores del Perú (Lima), Feb.–March 1827, or (S. Távara), Análisis y amplificatión del manifieslo presentado al Congreso del Perú par el honorable Sr. Ministro Don J. M. Pando (Lima, Masías, 1831), vol. 1, pp. 26–57.Google Scholar

8 ‘Merchants, Foreigners, and the State’, chs. 2–3, elaborates the ‘merchant nationalism’ theme. Key archival sources include surviving Consulado books of ‘Actas’ and ‘Informes’, such as AGN H-4 1556 (1821–3), H-4 1584 (1825–6), H-4 1707 (1829–35), H-4, 1838 (1842–5), and AGN, sec. H-8 (Tribunal del Consulado republicano, legs. 1–125, 1820S–50S); for official support see, e.g., ‘Resolución del Gobierno Supremo mandando Ilevar a efecto las disposiciones del Reglamento de Comercio…’, El Conciliador (Lima), 20 Jan. 1830.Google Scholar

9 Gootenberg, Paul, ‘Paying for Caudillos: The Politics of Emergency Finance in Peru, 1820–45’, in Peloso, Vincent and Tenenbaum, Barabara (eds.), Constitutional Order and State Finance: The Liberal Experience in Nineteenth-Century Latin America (forthcoming, 1992)Google Scholar for fiscal elements of state-building and links to models of caudillismo (Wolf, Beezley, etc.); see ‘Merchants, Foreigners, and the State’, ch. 3, on price politics. For both themes, major sources are AGN sec. H-1 (Consulado ‘oficios’) and scores of surviving ‘Arbitrios’ papers (throughout AGN and official periodicals). Consulado, Tribunal del, Razones poderosas que da el Comercio de esta Capital par las cuales no deben permitirse los establecimientos de martillo (Lima, Concha, 1834).Google Scholar

10 Excellent sources are T52/1, Buren, Lamed to Van, 1829–32 (all); ‘Harinas podridas’, La Miscelánea (Lima), 3–907 1830Google Scholar; ARE 6–3, Servicio Diplomático Extranjero, E.U., 1830; AML, ‘Proyecto de agricultura’, 18 July 1831; and retrospect by Alzamora (‘Proyecto’) in El Comercio (Lima), 13 01. 1843.Google Scholar This issue basically extended late-colonial developments; see Galindo, Alberto Flores, Aristocracia y plebe: Lima, 1760–1830 (Estructura de clases y sociedad colonial (Lima, 1984), chs. 1–3.Google Scholar

11 FO 61/29, Wilson to Palmerston, ‘Memo’, 14 July 1835; CCC/4, Barrère, no. 11, 24 March 1836; and T52/1–3, Larned to Livingston, Lane and Forsyth, all 1829–36, all detailed analyses of this movement. For history by a vital actor, Távara, S., see ‘Paralelo entre los Tratados denominados de Salaverry y Santa Cruz’, Comercio, all 11. 1846 (orig., 1843)Google Scholar; or Apuntes relativos a la operación práctica del Tratado de Comercio Ilamada de Salaverry concluido entre las Repúblicas de Chile y del Perú… (Guayaquil, Murillo, 1836).Google ScholarBurr, Robert N., By Reason or Force: Chile and the Balancing of Power in South America, 1830–1905; (Berkeley, 1965;), chs. 2–3Google Scholar, for the international context of treaty movements.

12 For extended analysis of the nationalist ‘movement’, see Between Silver and Guano, ch. 6. For prohibitions impact, Telégrafo, Dec. 1827–June 1828 (esp. ‘Comercio’, all Feb. 1828, and Dep. Cuadros speech, 16 June 1828); Observaciones sobre el proyecto de Reglamento de Comercio presentado al Congreso por la Comisión de Hacienda (Lima, Libertad, 1828)Google Scholar; X.Y.Z., Reflexiones sobre la ley de prohibiciones reimpresas y aumentadas con notas (Lima, Masías, 1831).Google Scholar

13 Gootenberg, Paul, ‘Beleaguered Liberals: the Failed First Generation of Free Traders in Peru’, in Love, Joseph and Jacobsen, Nils (eds.), Guiding the Invisible Hand: Liberalism and the State in Latin American History (New York, 1988), pp. 63–97.Google Scholar ‘Exposición del proyecto de Reglamento de Comercio’, Conciliador, Nov.–Dec. 1832 (and ‘Economía Política’, May—Oct. 1831); Vidaurre, M., Discurso sobre la acta de navegación (Boston, n.p., 1828)Google Scholar; Pando, J. M., Memoria sobre el estado de la Hacienda de la República Peruana en fin de 1830 presentado al Congreso por J. M. Pando (Lima, Masías, 1831)Google Scholar; ‘Análisis de las proposiciones del Sr. Vidaurre’, El Eco de la Opinión del Perú (Lima), Aug.—Sept. 1827Google Scholar for repudiation. For new approach to northern liberals, see Walker, Charles, ‘The Social Bases of Political Conflict in Peru, 1820–1845’ (ms., Amsterdam, 1988).Google Scholar

14 For details on foreign merchants and loans, see ‘Merchants, Foreigners, and the State’, pp. 289–308. AGN H-I OL 185/1207, Prefectures, Dec. 1828—Jan. 1829; AGN H-I OL 175/770, ‘Empréstito interno del año de 1828: actas y otros documentos’, 01. 1829; Gaceta del Gobierno (Lima), 4 04 1835Google Scholar; ‘Respuesta del Cuerpo Diplomático a la Lei sobre empréstitos extranjeros’, El Peruana (Lima), 6 12. 1845.Google Scholar

15 Based on M154/vols. 1–6, T52/vols. 1–8, 1824–54 (U.S.A.); FO 61/vols. 1–136, 1823–52 (Great Britain), and CCC/vols. 1–8, 1821–47 (France); and ARE, sees. 6 and 9. For synopsis of French impact, ‘El artículo 61 del Reglamento de Comercio’ and ‘Consejo de Estado: informe del Sr. Rio’, La Bolsa (Lima), 12 05 1842.Google Scholar

16 Gootenberg, Paul, Tejidos y harinas, corazones y mentes: el imperialismo norteamericano del libre comercio en el Perú, 1825–1840 (Lima, 1989) details and analyses the impact of the US campaign.Google Scholar

17 Wibel, John F., ‘The Evolution of a Regional Community within the Spanish Empire and Peruvian Nation: Arequipa, 1780–1845’, unpubl. PhD diss., Stanford Univ., 1975Google Scholar, provides excellent background; Galindo, Alberto Flores, Arequipa y el sur andino: siglos xviii–xx (Lima, 1977), chs. 1–2Google Scholar; Ponce, Fernando, ‘Social Structure of Arequipa, 1840–1879’, unpubl. PhD diss., Univ. of Texas at Austin, 1980Google Scholar, and Jacobsen, Nils, ‘Landtenure and Society in the Peruvian Altiplano: Azángaro Province, 1770–1920’, unpubl. PhD diss., Univ. of California at Berkeley, 1982, ch. 2.Google Scholar

18 Dávila, Tomás, Medios que se proponen al actual Congreso Constitutional del Perú para salvar de su total destrucción la casi-arruinada agricultura de la importante Provincia de Moquegua… (Arequipa, 1853)Google Scholar; other critical sources include ‘Representación del Comercio de Arequipa al Gobierno’, Comercio, 14–15 Aug. 1850; Conciliador, 25 08. 1830Google Scholar; Rivero, Francisco de, Memoria o sea apuntamientos sobre la industria agríc ola del Perú y sobre algunos medios que pudieran adoptarse para remediar su decadencia (Lima, 1845;), pp. 7–38Google Scholar; and ‘Memorias del Gen. Manuel de Mendiburu’ (ms., Biblioteca Denegri Luna, Lima), vol. I (1839–44).Google Scholar

19 Gamio, P. J., Representación que el Comercio del Arequipa ha dirigido al Supremo Gobierno por medio de su Diputado (Arequipa, Imp. del Gobierno, 1832)Google Scholar; Loayza, M. M. de, Refutación de las observaciones publicadas por el Sr. encargado de negocios de S. M. B. D. B. H. Wilson en el Correo n. 47 (Lima, Masías, 1840)Google Scholar; FO 61/58–90, various (Arequipa, Tacna, lslay) to Wilson and Palmerston, all 1839–45; Galindo, Flores, Arequipa y el sur, ch. 2.Google Scholar

20 ‘Reflexiones sobre el tratado de comercio concluido en Arequipa entre el Bolivia y el Perú’, Conciliador, 9–20 06 1832Google Scholar; CCC/2, Barrère, ‘Histoire de la Contestation Existente entre le Pérou et le Chile’, 12 Oct. 1832 (and 24 July 1830); CCC/8, Lemoyne, , ‘Rapport sur le commerce d'Arica et Tacna (Pérou)’, 16 March 1845.Google Scholar

21 Jordán, Pilar García, ‘La iglesia peruana ante la formación del Estado moderno’, Histórica, vol. 10, no. 1 (1986), pp. 19–43Google Scholar; also, Gleason, Daniel, ‘Ideological Cleavages in Early Republican Peru, 1821–1872’, unpubl. PhD diss., Univ. of Notre Dame, 1974Google Scholar; for aspects of conservatism, María Remy, Isabel, ‘La sociedad local al inicio de la República: Cuzco, 1824–1850’, Revista Andina, vol. 6, no. 2 (1988), pp. 451–84.Google Scholar There is an uncanny historical ambivalence in southern trade stances; see Jacobsen, Nils, ‘Free Trade, Regional Elites, and the Internal Market in Southern Peru, 1895–1932’, in Love, and Jacobsen, , Guiding the Invisible Hand, pp. 145–76.Google Scholar

22 This blends political analysis in Wibel, , ‘Arequipa’, chs. 9–12Google Scholar and policy analysis in Between Silver and Guano, chs. 2, 4; for a survey of national repercussions, see Carpio, Juan, ‘Rebeliones arequipeñas del siglo xix y configuraciones de la “oligarquía nacional”’, Análisis, vol. 2 (05–08. 1977), pp. 7–25Google Scholar; the not very enlightening first-hand accounts include Valdivia, Juan Gualberto, Memorias sobre las revoluciones de Arequipa desde 1834 hasta 1866 (Lima, 1874).Google Scholar

23 Wolf, Eric R., Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley, 1982)Google Scholar—a suggestive framework to study relations between the Lima state and its provinces. Superb archival work is starting to uncover these histories; for examples, see Allpanchis (Lima, vol. 18, no. 21, 1983), with articles by Chocano, Manrique, Urrutia, Valderrama, Escalante and Jacobsen.

24 Excellent sources (apart from regional archives) are provincial trader concursos (bankruptcy trials) at the Consulado (AGN H-8, legs. 9–18, 1821–50); records of ‘Juntas Departamentales de Comercio’ (in AGN sec. H-I); regional delegates in congress debates (Telégrafo, Dec. 1827, June 1828; Comercio, July–Aug. 1845 etc.); and published or archival minutes of early federalist Juntas Departamentales (periodicals and AML).

25 Start, e.g., with minutely detailed ‘Estadística de Huaraz’, Comercio, 14 12. 1839–16 01. 1840Google Scholar; Choquehuanca, J. D., Ensayo de estadística completa de los ramos económicos- políticos de la Provincia de Azángaro en el Departamento de Puno de la República Peruano del quinquenio desde 1825; hasta 1829 inclusive (Lima, Corral, 1833)Google Scholar; or provincial tax census of 1827 (many in AGN H-4 archival books), partially published as ‘Estadísticas’ in La Prensa Peruana (Lima), May 1828–Oct. 1829.Google Scholar

26 ‘Merchants, Foreigners, and the State’, ch. 3, examines trade and risk structures; for illustration, AML, ‘Vecinos de la ciudad de Ica a la Junta Departamental’, 6 July 1832 (and Miscelánea, 4, 21 Sept. 1833); Conciliador, decrees of 4, 20 Jan. 1830; letter of merchant N. García, Comercio, 16 June 1840 (or ‘Unos comerciantes’, 21 Aug. 1845). See Mallon, Florencia, The Defense of Community in Peru's Central Highlands (Princeton, 1983), pp. 33–8, 63–70Google Scholar, on typical commercial relationships.

27 Hünefeldt, Christine, ‘Los extranjeros y el siglo xix: Perú’ (ms., Lima, 1980)Google Scholar; foreign census in ARE 2–0-D, Prefecturas, 1840 (cf with later ARE 2–0-E, Prefecturas de Departamentos, 1860). Examples of expulsion pressures, ARE 2–0-E, Prefecturas, Lampa, 12 July 1830; ARE 6–14, Servicio Diplomático, 18 Sept. 1832; ARE 2–0-E, Trujillo, Feb. 1841; ARE 2–0-D, Lambayeque, 1844; Conciliador, 4 Jan., 11 Feb. 1830; FO 61/27, Wilson to Palmerston, 17 Oct. 1834 (and scores of incidents in consular reports). For context, Mörner, Magnus, Notas sobre el comercio y los comerciantes del Cuzco desde fines de la colonia hasta 1930 (Lima, 1979), pp. 9–15.Google Scholar

28 Between Silver and Guano, ch. 3, surveys obraje politics; or see, e.g., ‘Comercio y fábricas’, Telégrafo, 05 1828Google Scholar; Mercurio, Dec. 1827, May–June 1828; FO 61/24, Wilson to Palmerston, 18 Dec. 1833; FO 61/53, Commercial Report on the Trade of Peru in 1837; ‘Mensaje del Presidente provisorio de la República al Congreso’, Peruana, 14 09. 1839Google Scholar; Bonilla, Heraclio, ‘El Perú entre la Independencia y la guerra con Chile’, in Baca, J. M. (ed.), Historia del Perú (Lima, 1980), vol. 6, pp. 424–5Google Scholar (regional merchant role).

29 ‘Estadística de Huaraz’, Comercio, 14 Dec. 1839–16 Jan. 1840; speeches of Deps. Cabero, and Ponce, , Comercio, 9, 23, 2508. 1845Google Scholar; FO 61/24, Wilson to Palmerston, 18 Dec. 1833; one promising Source for such artisans are supply contracts in Archivo Histórico-Militar del Peru. For town sector, see Kruggeler, Thomas, ‘lAspects of Economic and Social History of Cuzco Artisans (1820–1880)’ (ms, Amsterdam, 1988), pp. 7–8.Google Scholar Unemployment estimate: Larrea, José de, in ‘Bases para la estadística del Perú (1826)’, in Macera, P. (comp.), Tierra y población en el Perú (ss. xviii–xix) (Lima, 1972), 3, p. 542.Google Scholar

30 Hünefeldt, Christine, ‘Poder y contribuciones: Puno, 1825–1845’, Revista Andina, vol. 7, no. 2 (12. 1989), pp. 367–409Google Scholar; Contreras, Carlos, ‘Estado republicano y tributos indígenas en la sierra central en la postindependencia’, Histórica, vol. 13, no. 1 (07 1989), pp. 9–44Google Scholar; the clearcut Bolivian model is Platt, Tristan, Estado Boliviano y ayllu andino: tierra y tributo en el norte de Potosi (Lima, 1982)Google Scholar; for ethnic analysis, see Gootenberg, Paul, ‘Population and Ethnicity in Early Republican Peru: Some Revisions’ (forthcoming, Latin American Research Review, vol. 26, no. 3, 1991), esp. closing sections.Google Scholar

31 Briones, Pedro de Rojas y, Proyectos de Economía Político que en favor de la República Peruana ha formado el ciudadano P. Rojas y Briones, diputado del Soberano Congreso nombrado por la Provincia de Cajamarca (Lima, Concha, 1828)Google Scholar; Observaciones sobre el proyecto de Reglamento de Comercio de 1828; T52/1, Larned to Van Buren, 8 March 1830; ‘Estadística de Huaraz’, Comercio, Dec.–Jan. 1839–40; speech of Dep. Ugarte, Comercio, 20 Aug. 1851.

32 Manrique, Nelson, Mercado interno y región: la sierra central, 1820–1930 (Lima, 1987), chs. 1–3Google Scholar; Deustua, José, La minería peruana y la iniciación de la República, 1820–1840 (Lima, 1986)Google Scholar; Contreras, Carlos, Mineros y campesinos en los Andes (Lima, 1987)Google Scholar; Mallon, , Defense of Community, ch. 2. For miners’ trade dilemmas, see ‘Los mineros’, Clamores, 17 March 1827 (issues even broached in Bolívar's correspondence); FO 61/8, Ricketts to Canning, ‘Report on Mines’, 19 Sept. 1826;Google ScholarRivero, M. E. de, Busca-pique a la piña u observaciones sobre las ventajas de la libre circulación de las pastas de oro y plata (Lima, Masías, 1830); and countless Consulado documents.Google Scholar

33 Urrutia, Jaime, ‘De las rutas, ferias y circuitas en Huamanga’, Allpanchis 18 (1983), pp. 47–65Google Scholar; Garrido, A., Principios generales de Economía Política por P. H. Suzanne, traducidos al Español y aumentados con notas por A. Garrido, oficial mayor y tesorero interna de Departamento de Ayacucho (Ayacucho, 1832)Google Scholar; ‘Estadísticas’, Prensa Peruana, 5 March, 21 April 1829; congressional speeches in Comercio, 8, 23 Aug. 1845 and Nov. 1849.

34 Sources for Cuzco protectionism are abundant: for some, ‘Política económica’, El Acento de Justicia (Cuzco), Sept. 1829; Junta Departamental and Prefect reports in La Minerva del Cuzco (06 1831, 1832)Google Scholar, Conciliador, 27 June 1832. For overviews, Herrera, José Tamayo, Historia social del Cuzco republicano (Lima, 1978), pp. 44–8Google Scholar, on Luna, Félix Denegri, ‘La antigua controversía sobre el Libre Comercio en el Cuzco de 1829’, Banca (Lima), vol.2 (12. 1982), pp. 77–81Google Scholar; a notable nostalgic view is Aréstegui's, NarcisoEl Padre Horán (Lima, 1969), vol. 2, pp. 108–11.Google Scholar

35 Jacobsen, , ‘Landtenure and Society in Azángaro’, ch. 2Google Scholar; ‘Estadística’, Prensa Peruana, 10 02. 1829Google Scholar; Choquehuanca, , Estadística de Azángaro (1825–9)Google Scholar; ‘Estadística de Puno’, Comercio, 1 July 1840; FO 61/120, Adams to Palmerston, Sept. 1849.

36 See Safford, Frank, ‘Politics, Ideology and Society in Post-Independence Spanish America’, in Bethell, Leslie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America (Cambridge, 1985), vol. 4, pp. 402–21Google Scholar, for an insightful survey of caudillo politics models; for Peru, recent interpretations (Yepes, Bonilla, Cotler etc.) seem to draw on Argentine experience (breakdown, ruralisation, and personalism) generalised in Halperín-Donghi's, TulioHistoria contemporánea de América Latina (Madrid, 1969), chs. 2–3.Google Scholar The approach tried here shares more with political economy views of politics (Burgin, Miron, The Economic Aspects of Argentine Federalism, 1820–1852, [Cambridge, 1946])CrossRefGoogle Scholar—with sharp contrasts in stances of coastal and interior interests. For fiscal aspects, see Gootenberg, ‘Paying for Caudillos’.

37 Tristán, Flora, Peregrinations of a Pariah, 1833–1834, trans. Hawkes, J. (Boston, 1986), pp. 235–7.Google Scholar For a sample of such analyses in consular reports (with ‘party’ used loosely, of course), see FO 61/24–5, Wilson to Palmerston, 1833–4; FO 61/67–70, Wilson to Palmerston, all 1840; CCC/I, Barrère, 16 Oct. 1830, and so on.

38 For elaboration see Between Silver and Guano, ch. 4 (trade affiliations from pronouncements and policy shifts in dozens of revolts). Consuls tend to focus on groups around Gamarra, La Fuente, Iguaín, and Ferreyros; one remarkable confession of northern caudillo aims is Gamarra's own conversation with a US chargé, reported verbatim in T52/1, Larned to Van Buren, 8 March 1830.

39 Full bloom of gamarrista policies in Gamarra's Conciliador, Jan.–April 1830; Salaverry's Gaceta del Gobierno, March–June 1835; Huancayo debates and decrees in Peruana, Oct.–Dec. 1839. Cf. Loredo, José de Larrea y, Principios que sigió el ciudadano J. de Larrea y Loredo en el Ministerio de Hacienda y sección de Negocios Eclesiásticos de que estuve encargado (Lima, Concha, 1827)Google Scholar with Távara's critique in Análisis y amplificación del manifesto presentado al Congreso.

40 Observaciones sobre el proyecto de Reglamento de Comercio de 1828; Reflexiones sobre la ley de prohibiciones; Prensa Peruana, 17 June 1828, Conciliador, 19 June 1830 (and ongoing prohibitions decrees); ‘Comercio’ and ‘Nuestra patria o el bien de nuestra patria’, Telégrafo, Feb. 1828; for defeat of southern proposals,14 March, 16 June 1828(Cuadros speech). Major insights also in archives of Consulado and other coastal groups.

41 FO 61/78; Wilson to Palmerston, July–Sept. 1841, for just one of countless Iguaín episodes; Villanueva, Víctor, Ejército peruana: del caudillaje anárquico al militarismo reformista (Lima, 1973), chs. 1–2Google Scholar (and Table 1) on militarist origins; denunciations of Lima policies by Dep. Ponce, Comercio, 27 Aug. 1845; AGN H-I OL 279/884–918, Tribunal de Consulado, ‘Proyectos y otros documentos del Reglamento de Comercio’, Oct. 1840, exemplifies growing Lima power.

42 Structures of nationalist politics are examined in ch. 4 of Between Silver and Guano; for pearls of backlash politics, Telégrafo, 21 March 1828; El Tribunal del Pueblo (Lima), all 1838–9; El Rebeñique (Lima), Sept. 1841; M154/2, Tudor to Clay, 6 Feb. 1828, 18 June 1829. Gootenberg, ‘Social Origins of Protectionism and Free Trade’ for one target (artisans) of clientelism.

43 T52/2, Larned to Lane, 13 Feb., 25 June 1834; T52/3, Larned to Forsyth, April–Aug. 1835. Burns, E. Bradford, The Poverty of Progress: Latin America in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, 1980)Google Scholar develops a notion of caudillos (and protectionists) as anti-Europeanisation forces. For federalism, Serna, Raúl Rivera, ‘Las Juntas Departamentales durante el primer gobierno de Mariscal Don Agustín Gamarra’, Boletín de la Biblioteca Nacional (Lima) 17/18 (1964), pp. 3–18Google Scholar; or Conciliador, all Sept.–Nov. 1830 (gamarrista revolt of Lima juntas).

44 Between Silver and Guano, ch. 6, for the argument, extending (and contrasting) with the classic notion of incipient Peruvian nationalism: Heraclio Bonilla and Karen Spalding's ‘La Independencia en el Perú: las palabras y los hechos’, in Bonilla, et al. (eds.), La Independencia en el Perú (Lima, 1972), pp. 15–65.Google Scholar

45 El Mensajero de Tacna, 1839; El Regenerador (Arequipa), 12 Jan. 1841; Peruana, 14 Jan., 24 March, 10 July 1841; 12, 27 April, 10, 19–20 May, 31 July 1843; spotty collections of La República are also a good source. M154/2, Radcliff and Tudor to Clay, 1827–8 (esp. Feb.–March 1828 dealings with Arequipan deputies); FO 61/29, Passmore, H. Wilson (Arequipa), Jan.–May 1834.

46 British consuls in the south left copious and excellent accounts: Tacna, Arica and Arequipa (for examples, FO 61/64, H. Wilson, Aug.–Oct. 1839; FO 61/83, Crompton, Jan.–May 1841; FO 61/98, Barton, May 1843). Classic political accounts (Távara, Paz Soldán, Valdivia, Echenique) are more opaque with trade issues (with the exception of unpublished ‘Memorias’ of Mendiburu). Southern anti-militarism (in liberal congresses) was probably related to this military vulnerability.

47 See, e.g., Río, Juan García del, ‘Estado miserable del Perú por su división’, Peruano, 7 08. 1838Google Scholar; FO 61/37–58 (Wilson, 1836–9) conveys astonishing detail on Confederation rise and fall. For examples of dictatorial liberal politics, FO 61/45, ‘Petition of British Merchants in Lima’, 28 June 1837; M154/2, Tudor to Clay, Nov. 1827–June 1828 (and ‘Nuestra patria y el bien de nuestra patria’, Telégrafo, Feb. 1828); ‘Reglamento de Comercio’, El Amigo del Pueblo (Lima), 14 05 1840.Google Scholar

48 ‘Movimiento mercantil,’ Telégrafo, 25–6 Aug. 1834; T52/2, Larned to Lane, 20 Aug. 1834; FO 61/50, Wilson to Palmerston, 1 May 1838; FO 61/45–53, all 1837–8; CCC/6, Saillard, 3 April, 5 Oct. 1841 (all cases of useless foreign concessions). ‘Merchants, Foreigners, and the State’, chs. 4–5, explores the broad weakness of liberal fiscal/economic/political rewards.

49 Burr, , By Reason or Force, ch. 3Google Scholar, for Chilean perception of events; Valdivia, Memorias sobre las revoluciones de Arequipa, and Dávila, , Medios para la arruinada agricultura de Moquegua, sees. 8–9Google Scholar, for litany of punishments and wars from southern perspective (or Peruano, Editorial, 24 March 1841). For the standard chronology, consult Basadre, Jorge, Historia de la República del Perú (Lima, 5th ed., 1963), vols. 1–II.Google Scholar

50 FO 61/108, Adams to Palmerston, 8 Feb. 184;; Ramón Castilla, ‘Memoria del ministerio general encargado del Despacho de Guerra y Hacienda’, Peruano, 2 Nov. 1839; Between Silver and Guano, ch. 5, pp. 111–20 for detailed exposition of breakdown and caudillo shifts.

51 FO 61/113, Islay, Report on Trade, 1846; CCC/I (Arequipa/Arica), Villamúes, ‘Mémoire sur le Département d'Arequipa’, April 1846 (and similar reports July 1845, July 1846); Los Intereses del País (Cuzco), 13 09. 1849Google Scholar; Mendiburu, , ‘Memorias’, vol.1, pp. 115–46, 1842–1843Google Scholar (the best guide to changing attitudes to national trade grievances); on military/pacification use of initial guano, see W. M. Mathew, Antony Gibbs and Sons, the Guano Trade, and the Peruvian Government, 1842–1861’, in Platt, D. C. M. (ed.), Business Imperialism, 1840–1930 (Oxford, 1977), pp. 337–70.Google Scholar This closing section is the briefest possible synopsis of regional issues from Between Silver and Guano, chs. 4–5.

52 See, e.g., ‘Proyecto’, Comercio, 13 Jan. 1843; ‘Paralelo entre el tratado denominado Salaverry y los de Santa Cruz’, Comercio, all Nov. 1846; Ledos, Carlos, Consideraciones sobre la agricultura (Lima, 1847), pp. 167–70Google Scholar (with new export vistas); ‘Representación del Comercio de Arequipa al Gobierno’, Comercio, 15 08. 1850Google Scholar; and esp. ‘Política económica’, El Progreso (Lima), 27 July 1849Google Scholar—mouthpiece of the national liberal perspective.

53 Between Silver and Guano, ch. 4, pp. 93–9, for ‘free port’ movement; or polemics such as ‘Igualdad de derechos en los puertos’, Comercio, 11 July 1851 (and 27 Sept. 1851); ‘Representación del Consejo de Estado sobre el proyecto presentado por el Ministerio de Hacienda’, Registro Oficial (Lima), 12 08. 1850Google Scholar; ‘Legislación mercantil’, Progreso, 28 07–25 08. 1849.Google ScholarMendiburu's, ‘Memorias’, vols. 1–III (1842–1852)Google Scholar, illuminate all these related developments.

54 Questions inspired by Jacobsen, ‘Landtenure and Society in Azángaro’ (our closest study of the creation of an export region); Quiroz, Alfonso, La deuda defraudada: consolidación de 1850 y dominio económica en el Perú (Lima, 1987)Google Scholar, a superb analysis of elites during 1850s liberalisation; and Mallon, , Defense of Community (chs. 2–4Google Scholar, with striking local views of state expansion). Monge, Carlos, ‘El sur del Perú en perspectiva regional’, Revista Andina, vol. 5, no. 1 (07 1987), pp. 267–87Google Scholar, surveys new studies in the light of recent regionalist concerns.

55 Between Silver and Guano, all ch. 5, or similar processes analysed in Quiroz, , La deuda defraudada, chs. 2–4Google Scholar; this paragraph condenses manifold Consulado and periodical sources from Lima, 1841–52.

56 For Lima, see Gootenberg, , ‘Social Origins of Protectionism and Free Trade’, pp. 347–58Google Scholar; or ‘Beleaguered Liberals’, pp. 79–88; invaluable documents are detailed congressional polemics in Comercio, 1848–52.

57 See, e.g., Castillo, Ernesto Yepes del, Perú 1820–1920: un siglo de desarrollo capitalista (Lima, 1972), chs. 2–4.Google ScholarHirschman's, Albert O.The Passions and the Interests (Princeton, 1977)Google Scholar is relevant here; its novel interpretation of Montesquieu (and Hobbes) ought to provide clues about even Latin American state-building.