Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T13:57:53.383Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Culture, Politics and the Cold War: The Sociedad de Escritores de Chile in the 1950s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2019

Jorge A. Nállim
Jorge A. Nállim*
Affiliation:
Professor in History, University of Manitoba
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the 1950s, the Sociedad de Escritores de Chile experienced bitter disputes caused by the efforts of the Chilean Committee for Cultural Freedom, the local branch of a major institution in the US cultural Cold War, to gain control of the association. These disputes reveal the role played by the cultural Cold War in the breakdown of older political and intellectual alliances in Chile. They also highlight the transnational networks that connected Chilean writers during the Cold War, and the complex articulation of local and international contexts and agendas that influenced Chilean cultural and political groups.

Spanish abstract

En la década de 1950, la Sociedad de Escritores de Chile atravesó un período de duras disputas causadas por los intentos de ganar el control de la asociación por parte del Comité Chileno por la Libertad de la Cultura, la filial local de una organización central en la Guerra Fría cultural estadounidense. Estas disputas revelan el papel que jugó la Guerra Fría cultural en el quiebre de antiguas alianzas políticas e intelectuales en Chile. Asimismo, los conflictos echan luz sobre las redes transnacionales que vincularon a los escritores chilenos durante la Guerra Fría y sobre la compleja articulación de contextos y agendas locales e internacionales que influyeron sobre grupos culturales y políticos chilenos.

Portuguese abstract

Durante a década de 1950, a Sociedade de Escritores do Chile enfrentou disputas intensas com o Comitê pela Liberdade Cultural do Chile – o braço local de uma grande instituição da Guerra Fria cultural estado-unidense – que tentava ganhar o controle da associação. Estas disputas revelam o papel que desempenhou a Guerra Fria cultural na quebra de velhas alianças políticas e culturais no Chile. Também destacam as redes transnacionais que conectavam os escritores chilenos durante a Guerra Fria, a articulação complexa de contextos locais e internacionais e as agendas que influenciavam grupos culturais e políticos.

Keywords

ChileCold WarculturepoliticsCongress for Cultural FreedomSociedad de Escritores de ChileChileGuerra FríaculturapolíticaCongreso por la Libertad de la CulturaSociedad de Escritores de ChileChileGuerra FriaculturapolíticaCongresso pela Liberdade CulturalSociedade de Escritores do Chile
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 51 , Issue 3 , August 2019 , pp. 549 - 571
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Carlos de Baráibar to Michael Josselson, Santiago, 3 July 1958, International Association for Cultural Freedom (hereafter IACF) records, University of Chicago, Joseph Regenstein Library's Special Collections Research Center, series 2, box 217, folder 6. Unless otherwise indicated, IACF location numbers refer to the post-2013 catalogue. Records referring to the pre-2013 (‘old’) catalogue will be noted with ‘OC’ after the box number.

2 Aguilera, Oscar and Antivilo, Julia, Historia de la Sociedad de Escritores de Chile. Los diez primeros años de la SECH y visión general 1931–2001 (Santiago: Sociedad de Escritores de Chile, 2002)Google Scholar. For specific references to conflicts between communists and anti-communists in the association during the 1950s, see Nállim, Jorge A., ‘Intelectuales y Guerra Fría. El Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura en Argentina y Chile, 1950–1964’, Anuario del Instituto de Historia Argentina, 14 (2014)Google Scholar, and Janello, Karina C., ‘Los intelectuales de la Guerra Fría. Una cartografía latinoamericana (1953–1962)’, Políticas de la Memoria, 14 (2013–14), pp. 79–101Google Scholar.

3 Bernardo Subercaseaux, Historia de las ideas y de la cultura en Chile, vol. 3, book 5: Política y cultura (Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 2011); Germán Albuquerque F., La trinchera letrada. Intelectuales latinoamericanos y Guerra Fría (Santiago: Ariadna, 2011)Google Scholar; Valle, Fabio Moraga and Palma, Carla Peñaloza, ‘España en el corazón de los chilenos. La Alianza de Intelectuales y la revista Aurora de Chile, 1937–1939’, Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura, 38: 2 (2011), pp. 55–81Google Scholar.

4 Brands, Hal, Latin America's Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 7Google Scholar; Harmer, Tanya, ‘The Cold War in Latin America’, in Kalinovsky, Artemy M. and Daigle, Craig (eds.), The Routledge History of the Cold War (London and New York: Routledge, 2014), pp. 133–48Google Scholar; McPherson, Alan, ‘Afterword. The Paradox of Latin American Cold War Studies’, in Garrard-Burnett, Virginia, Lawrence, Mark Atwood and Moreno, Julio E. (eds.), Beyond the Eagle's Shadow: New Histories of Latin America's Cold War (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2013), pp. 307–15Google Scholar.

5 Scott-Smith, Giles and Segal, Joes, ‘Divided Dreamworlds? The Cultural Cold War in East and West’, in Romijn, Peter, Scott-Smith, Giles and Segal, Joes (eds.), Divided Dreamworlds? The Cultural Cold War in East and West (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012), pp. 1–9Google Scholar.

6 Mooney, Jadwiga Pieper and Lanza, Fabio (eds.), De-centering Cold War History. Local and Global Change (New York: Routledge 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Joseph, Gilbert M. and Spenser, Daniela (eds.), In from the Cold: Latin America's New Encounter with the Cold War (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Iber, Patrick, Neither Peace nor Freedom. The Cultural Cold War in Latin America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Glondys, Olga, La guerra fría cultural y el exilio republicano español. Cuadernos del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura, 1953–1965 (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Calandra, Benedetta and Franco, Marina (eds.), La guerra fría cultural en América Latina. Desafíos y límites para una nueva mirada de las relaciones interamericanas (Buenos Aires: Biblos, 2012)Google Scholar; Nállim, Jorge A., ‘Intelectuales y Guerra Fría’ and ‘Local Struggles, Transnational Connections: Latin American Intellectuals and the Congress for Cultural Freedom’, in Chen, Tina Mai and Churchill, David S. (eds.), The Material of World History (New York: Routledge, 2015), pp. 106–31Google Scholar; Janello, Karina C., ‘Intelectuales de la Guerra Fría’ and ‘El Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura: El caso chileno y la disputa por las “ideas fuerza” de la Guerra Fría’, Revista Izquierdas, 14 (2012), pp. 14–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Nállim, Jorge A., ‘De los intereses gremiales a la lucha política: La Sociedad Argentina de Escritores (SADE), 1928–1946’, Prismas. Revista de Historia Intelectual, 7 (2003), pp. 117–38Google Scholar; Fiorucci, Flavia, ‘Between Institutional Survival and Intellectual Commitment: The Case of the Argentine Society of Writers during Perón's Rule (1945–1955)’, The Americas, 62: 4 (2006), pp. 591–622Google Scholar; Iber, Patrick, ‘The Cold War Politics of Literature and the Centro Mexicano de Escritores’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 48: 2 (2016), pp. 247–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Fleet, Michael, The Rise and Fall of Chilean Christian Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), pp. 45–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Collier, Simon and Sater, Willian F., A History of Chile, 1808–2002 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 24Google Scholar.

10 They included the Colombian Germán Arciniegas, the Argentines Alfredo Palacios and Américo Ghioldi, the Cuban Jorge Mañach, the Venezuelan Rómulo Betancourt, and the prominent intellectuals and leaders of the Peruvian Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (American Popular Revolutionary Alliance, APRA) Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre and Luis Alberto Sánchez. Eduardo Devés-Valdés, El pensamiento latinoamericano en el siglo XX. Entre la modernización y la identidad, vol. 1: Del Ariel de Rodó a la CEPAL (1900–1950) (Buenos Aires: Biblos–Centro de Investigaciones Diego Barros de Arana, 2000), pp. 163–78.

11 Such was the case of Francisco Coloane, Luis David Cruz Ocampo and Carlos Préndez Saldías. Moraga Valle and Peñaloza Palma, ‘España’, pp. 73–4.

12 ‘Ley de Defensa Permanente de la Democracia’, Law no. 8987.

13 Collier and Sater, Chile, pp. 246–51; Teitelboim, Volodia, Neruda: La biografía (La Roda, Albacete: Ediciones Merán, 2003), pp. 281–3Google Scholar.

14 Iber, Neither Peace, pp. 56–82.

15 On the CCF, see Saunders, Frances Stonor, The Cultural Cold War. The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: The New Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Berghahn, Volker R., America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Grémion, Pierre, Intelligence de l'anticommunisme. Le Congrès pour la Liberté de la Culture à Paris, 1950–1975 (Paris: Fayard, 1995)Google Scholar.

16 Glondys, Guerra fría, pp. 80–4; ‘Vida del Congreso’, Cuadernos del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura, 5 (1954), pp. 108–9; Julián Gorkin, ‘Rapport sur ma dernière tournée en Amérique latine (du 13 mars au 11 mai)’ [1958], IACF records, series 2, box 131OC, folder 3.

17 Baráibar to Josselson, Santiago, 5 July 1953, IACF records, series 2, box 204OC, folder 6; Janello, ‘Intelectuales de la Guerra Fría’, pp. 79–83.

18 Other renowned falangistas who would develop important political careers in the following decades, such as Eduardo Frei and Radomiro Tomic, were close to the committee and participated in its activities during the 1950s.

19 SECH, Libro de Actas No. 1 – Actas – Estatutos – Julio 1933–Noviembre 1941 (hereafter Libro de Actas 1933–1941), pp. 1–3.

20 SECH, ‘Estatutos’, Libro de Actas 1933–1941, pp. 5–15.

21 SECH, board meetings of 12 May 1934 and 20 June 1936, Libro de Actas 1933–1941, pp. 125–8 and 135 respectively.

22 SECH, board meetings of 12 June 1935 and 23 July, 1935, Libro de Actas 1933–1941, pp. 76 and 85–6 respectively.

23 Collier and Sater, Chile, p. 228; SECH, board meeting, 6 March 1936, Libro de Actas 1931–1941, p. 111; SECH, Junta General Ordinaria, 6 April 1936, Libro de Actas 1931–1941, p. 117.

24 SECH board meetings, all in Libro de Actas 1933–1941, of 16 July 1935, p. 84; 26 Nov. 1935, p. 102; 10 Dec. 1935, p. 107; 24 March 1936, p. 112; 5 May 1936, p. 123. Bolivia and Paraguay disputed the Chaco region, thought to be rich in oil, during the Chaco War of 1932–5.

25 SECH, board meeting, 28 July 1936, Libro de Actas 1933–1941, p. 144; ‘Federico García Lorca’, Revista de la SECH, 3 (1936), p. 2.

26 ‘Primer Congreso de Escritores de Chile’, Revista de la SECH, 5 (1937), pp. 44–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 SECH, board meeting of 21 April and 28 April 1937, Libro de Actas 1931–1941, pp. 165 and 168 respectively; SECH, board meeting, 29 Sept. 1937, Libro de Actas 1931–1941, pp. 183–5.

28 SECH, board meetings of 8 May 1939 and 17 July 1939, Libro de Actas 1933–1941, pp. 268 and 286 respectively.

29 SECH, Asamblea General, 3 April 1939, Libro de Actas 1933–1941, p. 260.

30 Baráibar to Gorkin, Santiago, 1 Sept. 1954, IACF records, series 2, box 204OC, folder 8.

31 Baráibar to Michael Joselsson, Santiago, 5 July 1953, IACF records, series 2, box 2014OC, folder 6. In addition to leftists such as Romero and José Santos González Vera, SECH's boards in the 1930s included conservatives such as Agustín Edwards and Januario Espinosa.

32 Such was the case of Amanda Labarca, eventually ChCCF's president in the late 1950s, Marta Brunet, who participated actively in the Chilean PEN Club in the 1950s, and Eduardo Barrios, SECH's vice-president in 1944 and president in 1945 and 1946.

33 Stonor Saunders, Cultural Cold War, pp. 62–6; Iber, Neither Peace, pp. 95–9; Janello, ‘El Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura’, pp. 30–2.

34 This was the case of Julio Barrenechea, Marta Brunet and Amanda Labarca. Subercaseaux, Política y cultura, p. 63; Moraga Valle and Peñaloza Palma, ‘España’, p. 73; Mariano Ruperthutz Honorato, ‘¡Salvemos a Freud! Juan Marín, Pablo Neruda, la Alianza de Intelectuales y las vicisitudes de un intento de asilo político al creador del psicoanálisis en Chile (1938)’, Nuevo Mundo. Mundos Nuevos (2014), online at https://nuevomundo.revues.org/67241 (last access 2 Aug. 2018).

35 Moraga Valle and Peñaloza Palma, ‘España’, pp. 67–71; Feinstein, Adam, Pablo Neruda: A Passion for Life (New York: Bloomsbury, 2004), pp. 140–7Google Scholar; Subercaseaux, Política y cultura, pp. 63–4. Baráibar's criticism is in ‘Los principales responsables del drama de nuestra emigración’, Revista Timón, segunda época, 1 (1939), pp. 135–8.

36 Iber, Neither Peace, p. 91; Fleet, Rise and Fall, pp. 40–7; Segovia, Alfredo Riquelme, ‘La Guerra Fría en Chile: Los intricados nexos entre lo nacional y lo global’, in Harmer, Tanya and Segovia, Alfredo Riquelme (eds.), Chile y la Guerra Fría global (Santiago: RIL Editores, 2014), p. 14Google Scholar.

37 Velazco, Jaime Castillo, ‘El Congreso Continental de la Cultura en Santiago de Chile’, Cuadernos, 2 (1953), pp. 84–5Google Scholar. Details on the confrontation regarding the Continental Congress of Culture are available in Iber, Neither Peace, pp. 93–4; Janello, ‘El Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura’, pp. 35–6; Albuquerque F., Trinchera, pp. 51–60.

38 SECH, board meeting of 28 Sept. 1953, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, p. 15.

39 SECH, board meeting of 4 May and 11 May 1953, Libro de Actas 1951–1953, pp. 188–9 and 191 respectively.

40 SECH, board meetings of 12 March 1951, Libro de Actas 1948–1951, p. 117.

41 SECH, board meeting of 12 March 1951 and Asamblea General de Miembros, 16 April 1951, Libro de Actas 1948–1951, pp. 153 and 164 respectively.

42 Zanatta, Loris, La internacional justicialista. Auge y ocaso de los sueños imperiales de Perón (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 2013)Google Scholar.

43 Nállim, ‘Intelectuales y Guerra Fría’; Alejandro Magnet, Nuestros vecinos justicialistas (Santiago de Chile: Editorial del Pacífico, 1953), pp. 207–8.

44 Nállim, ‘Local Struggles’, pp. 119–20; SECH, board meeting of 26 May 1954, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, p. 195.

45 Baráibar, ‘Desarrollo del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura en Chile’, 1956, IACF records, series 2, box 216, folder 9; ‘A propósito de “Nuestros Vecinos Justicialistas”’, Política y Espíritu, 104 (1953), pp. 10–12.

46 SECH, extraordinary board meeting, 27 Nov. 1953, and board meeting, 7 Dec. 1953, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, pp. 25–6 and 28 respectively.

47 SECH, board meeting of 7 June 1954, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, pp. 66–7.

48 Janello, Karina C., ‘Redes intelectuales y guerra fría: La agenda argentina del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura’, Revista de la Red Intercátedras de Historia de América Latina Contemporánea, 1 (2014), pp. 64–7Google Scholar.

49 SECH, board meetings of 23 April and 2 May, 1955, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, pp. 142–4.

50 Baráibar, ‘Desarrollo del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura en Chile’, 1956, IACF records, series 2, box 216, folder 3, pp. 3–4; ‘La Conferencia Latinoamericana por las Libertades’, Cultura y Libertad, 3 (1955), pp. 19–23; ‘La Conferencia Latinoamericana “por las libertades”’, Cultura y Libertad, 4 (1955), pp. 17–19; Informe sobre la Conferencia Latinoamericana por las Libertades (Santiago: Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura, 1955).

51 SECH, board meetings of 16 May and 30 May, 1955, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, pp. 149–50.

52 SECH, board meeting of 20 June 1955, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, p. 154.

53 SECH, board meeting of 1 August 1955, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, p. 160.

54 SECH, board meeting of 26 Sept. 1955, Libro de Actas 1953–1956, p. 168; Cultura y Libertad, 5 (1955), n.p.; ‘La Argentina en la hora de libertad’, Roberto Giusti, ‘Los intelectuales bajo el peronismo’ and Juan Antonio Solari, ‘Proceso y fin de una dictadura’, Cuadernos, 15 (1955), pp. 6, 17–21, and 22–30 respectively.

55 André Germain to Joselsson, 22 Nov. 1956, IACF records, series 2, box 204OC, folder 10.

56 Germain, ‘Compte-Rendu des activités du Comité Chilien du Congrès pour la Liberté de la Culture pendant l'année 1957’, IACF records, series 2, box 131OC, folder 2.

57 Pablo Neruda to the Director of El Mercurio, Santiago, 22 Dec. 1956, National Library of Chile, Santiago, Colección Archivo del Escritor-Manuscritos (hereafter CAE-M), Neruda 076.

58 Germain to John Hunt, Santiago, 24 Jan. 1957, IACF records, series 2, box 204OC, folder 10.

59 SECH, board meeting of 29 Nov. 1956, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, p. 22.

60 SECH, Junta Ordinaria Anual de Socios, 9 April 1957 and board meeting of 22 April 1957, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 29–30 and 31–2 respectively.

61 Baráibar to Gorkin, Santiago, 16 April 1957, IACF records, series, 2, box 216, folder 3.

62 SECH, board meeting, 1 July, 1957, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, p. 56; Feinstein, Neruda, p. 310.

63 ‘Gorkin ataca: Stalin era un loco al que Neruda dedicó sus poemas’, Las Noticias de Última Hora, 4 April 1958, n.p.; El Siglo, 5 April 1958, p. 3, both in IACF records, series 2, box 205OC, folder 3.

64 Baráibar to Joselsson, 7 April 1958, IACF records, series 2, box 112, folder 1; SECH, Asamblea Ordinaria de Socios, 31 March 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, p. 115.

65 Juan de Sur, ‘Mr. Gorkin y la SECH’, El Siglo, 6 April 1958, IACF records, series 2, box 205, folder 3.

66 SECH, Junta Ordinaria Anual de Socios and board meeting, 14 April 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 117–21.

67 ‘Puntos de Vista’, Política y Espíritu, 198 (1958), p. 4.

68 Matilde Ladrón de Guevara to Hugo Emilio Pedemonte, Santiago, 23 April 1958, CAE-M, Ladrón de Guevara 0236.

69 Those active in the ChCCF included the re-elected secretary-general of the PEN Club, Chela Reyes, her husband, Luis Meléndez, and Amanda Labarca, who was the ChCCF vice-president. Marta Brunet and Hernán Poblete, also elected to the PEN Club board, were very close to and participated in ChCCF activities. Baráibar to Gorkin, 25 Aug. 1958, IACF records, series 2, box 217, folder 6.

70 Paseyro, Ricardo, ‘El mito Neruda’, Cuadernos, 28 (1958), pp. 37–48Google Scholar; Jiménez, Juan Ramón, ‘Un gran mal poeta’, Cuadernos, 30 (1958), p. 59Google Scholar.

71 SECH, board meeting, 21 April 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, p. 122.

72 SECH, board meeting, 28 April 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 127–8.

73 SECH, board meeting, 2 June 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, p. 149. The denounced texts were signed ‘H.D.A.’, who was most likely the fierce anti-communist literary critic and ChCCF member Hernán Díaz Arrieta.

74 SECH, board meeting, 16 June 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 158–9.

75 SECH, board meeting, 30 June 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 160–6.

76 Baráibar to Josselson, Santiago, 3 July 1958, IACF records, series 2, box 217, folder 6. The resignations of Latcham and Cruz Ocampo were dealt with on 7 July, but there is no mention of the reasons that they offered or of any repercussions that they might have given rise to. SECH, board meeting, 7 July, 1958, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, p. 167. For Castillo's criticisms in La Libertad, see Jaime Castillo, ‘La responsabilidad de los escritores’, La Libertad, 3 July 1958, p. 4.

77 André Germain, ‘Compte-Rendu des principales activités du Comité de Santiago de Chile depuis janvier 1958’, Santiago, 10 Nov. 1958, IACF records, series 2, box 217, folder 6.

78 Baráibar to Gorkin, 31 Oct. 1958, IACF records, series 2, box 217, folder 6.

79 Germain to Gorkin, Santiago, 1 Nov. 1958, IACF records, series 2, box 217, folder 6.

80 ‘Puntos de vista’, in Política y Espíritu, 15 Nov. 1958, pp. 1–2.

81 Matilde Ladrón de Guevara to Carlos Sabat Ercasty, Santiago, 9 Nov. 1958, CAE-M, Ladrón de Guevara 0250.

82 David Schidlowsky, ‘Extractos de un racconto biográfico. El itinerario político de Pablo Neruda entre 1937 y 1966’, Políticas de la Memoria, 15 (2014–15), p. 208; Jorge Edwards quoted by Feinstein, Neruda, p. 319.

83 Baráibar to Gorkin, Santiago, 6 April 1959, IACF records, series 2, box 218, folder 3.

84 Other newly-elected board members close to the ChCCF were Marta Brunet (vice-president), Hernán Poblete (treasurer), and Carmen Castillo (assistant treasurer). SECH, Asamblea General de Socios, 13 April 1959, and board meeting of 20 April 1959, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 258–60 and 261–2 respectively.

85 ‘Elecciones en la Sociedad de Escritores’, La Libertad, 7 April, 1959, p. 3.

86 Baráibar to Gorkin, 14 April 1959, IACF records, series 2, box 218, folder 3.

87 SECH, board meeting of 20 April 1959, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 261–2.

88 SECH, board meeting of 24 Aug. 1959, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, p. 322.

89 On the Cuban Revolution and the reorganisation of the CCF's Latin American branches, see Iber, Neither Peace; Glondys, Guerra fría; María Eugenia Mudrovcic, Mundo Nuevo. Cultura y guerra fría en la década del 60 (Rosario: Beatriz Viterbo, 1997).

90 Baráibar to Gorkin, Santiago, 14 April 1959, IACF records, series 2, box 218, folder 3; Baráibar to Gorkin, Santiago, 19 May 1959, IACF records, series 2, box 218, folder 3.

91 SECH, board meeting, 25 April 1960, Libro de Actas 1956–1960, pp. 370–2.

92 ‘Elecciones en la Sociedad de Escritores de Chile’, n.d., IACF records, series 2, box 219, folder 4.

93 The Libro de Actas 1956–1961, numbered ‘6’ and ending with the board meeting of 9 May, 1960, is followed by the Libro de Actas 1961–1962, numbered ‘7’ and beginning with the General Assembly of Members of 17 April, 1961. The missing records could not be found during research at the SECH's offices. At that General Assembly, a document regarding ‘the main events that have happened’ in 1960–1 was presented, but the records do not provide further details. Asamblea General de Socios, 17 April 1961, Libro de Actas 1961–1962, pp. 1–3.

94 ‘Acta de la sesión ordinaria del Comité Chileno del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura realizada el martes 29 de noviembre de 1960’, IACF records, series 2, box 219, folder 3.

95 SECH, board meeting of 2 May 1961, Libro de Actas 1961–1962, pp. 4–8.

96 Baráibar to Gorkin, Santiago, 19 April 1961, and ‘Acta de la Sesión del Comité Chileno del Congreso por la Libertad de la Cultura Realizada el Martes 18 de abril de 1961,’ both in IACF records, series 2, box 220, folder 9.

97 Grandin, Greg and Joseph, Gilbert M., A Century of Revolution. Insurgent and Counterinsurgent Violence during Latin America's Long Cold War (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2010)Google Scholar; Iber, Patrick, ‘Anti-Communist Entrepreneurs and the Origins of the Cultural Cold War in Latin America’, in Mooney, Pieper and Lanza, (eds.), De-centering, pp. 167–86Google Scholar.