Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-xtvcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-20T01:01:26.745Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Protected Democracies” and Military Guardianship: Political Transitions in Latin America, 1978-1993*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Brian Loveman
Brian Loveman*
Affiliation:
San Diego State University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

In 1979, over two-thirds of Latin America's people were living under military rule. By 1993, however, not a single military regime remained in Central or South America or the Spanish-speaking Caribbean. Elected presidents (even if former generals, as in the case of Paraguay's first post-Stroessner government) and legislatures replaced military dictators and juntas. Foreign observers certified the “fairness” of elections in Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Paraguay — even when outgoing military regimes permitted elections only after certain parties or candidates had been excluded from participation. Political parties and opponents of incumbent governments operated openly. Media censorship declined, and fewer cases of politically-motivated abuses of human rights were reported. “Democratization” seemed to be underway.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs , Volume 36 , Issue 2 , Summer 1994 , pp. 105 - 189
Copyright
Copyright © University of Miami 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This article is a revised version of a paper prepared for the XVIII International Meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, held in Atlanta (GA), 9-12 March 1994. The author wishes to express his appreciation to J.S. Fitch, Eduardo Gamarra, Elizabeth Lira, Felipe Agüero, Mathew McCubbins, Paul Drake, Iván Jaksic, and Vincent Ostrom for their helpful comments and suggestions as well as to three anonymous readers for their useful, worthwhile suggestions. However, the author claims sole responsibility for any errors and/or omissions.

References

Acuña, C. and Smulovitz, C. (1992) “Adjustando las fuerzas armadas a la democracia: éxitos, fracasos y ambigüedades de las experiencias del Cono Sur.” Paper presented at a seminar of the Centro de Estudios para un Democracia Social (CEDES) on “Derechos Humanos, Justicia y Sociedad,” Buenos Aires (Argentina), 22–24 October.Google Scholar
Agüero, F. (1992) “The Military and the Limits to Democratization in South America,” pp. 153–198 in Mainwaring, Scott, O'Donnell, Guillermo and Samuel Valenzuela, J. (eds.) Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Aguilera, G. (1990) “The Armed Forces, Democracy, and Transition in Central America,” pp. 23–38 in Goodman, Louis W., Mendelson, J. and Rial, Juan (eds.) The Military and Democracy. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Alexander, G. (1984) “The Illusory Protection of Human Rights by National Courts During Periods of Emergency.” Human Rights Law Journal 5, 1 (Part I): 1–65.Google Scholar
Americas Watch (1993) “The Trial of Responsibilities: The García Meza Tejada Trial.” News from Americas Watch 5, 6 (10 September).Google Scholar
Americas Watch (1992) Peru Under Fire: Human Rights since the Return to Democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Americas Watch (1991a) Truth and Partial Justice in Argentina: An Update (April). New York, NY: America's Watch Report.Google Scholar
Americas Watch (1991b) El Salvador's Decade of Terror: Human Rights since the Assassination of Archbishop Romero. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Amnesty International (1989) Guatemala: Human Rights Violations under the Civilian Government. New York, NY: Amnesty International.Google Scholar
Amnesty International (1988) Honduras Autoridad Civil-Poder Militar; Violaciones de los Derechos Humanos en la Década de 1980. London, England: Amnesty International.Google Scholar
Argentina. Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas. (1984) Nunca Más: Informe de la Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparación de Personas. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Eudeba.Google Scholar
Arriagada Herrera, G. and Garreton, M. A. (1978) “America Latina a la hora de las doctrinas de la seguridad nacional,” pp. 144–229 in Perez, María Angélica (ed.) Las Fuerzas Armadas en La Sociedad Civil. Santiago de Chile: Centro de Investigaciones Socioeconómicas (CISEC).Google Scholar
de Arruda, A. (1983) A Escola Superior de Guerra (2 ed.). São Paulo, Brasil: Ediçoes GRD.Google Scholar
Artieda, F., Borja, R., Steinsleger, J. and Pareja Diezcanseco, A. (1987) El secuestrado del poder. Quito, Ecua-dor: Editorial El Conejo.Google Scholar
Astrisa, S. R. (1973) Jurisdicción Penal Militar, Estudio Crítico y Comparativo. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Jurídica.Google Scholar
Bacchus, W. (1990) Mission in Mufti: Brazil's Military Regimes, 1964-1985. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Ballbe, M. (1985) Orden público y militarismo en Espana constitutional 1812-1983. Madrid, Spain: Alianza Editorial.Google Scholar
Baloyra, E. (ed.) (1987) Comparing New Democracies: Transition and Consolidation in Mediterranean Europe and the Southern Cone. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Berger, S. (1993) “Guatemala: Coup and Countercoup.” NACLA Report on the Americas XXVII, 1 (July/August): 4–7.Google Scholar
Berntzen, E. (1993) “Democratic Consolidation in Central America: A Qualitative Comparative Approach.” Third World Quarterly 14, 3: 589–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, J. (1993) “Almost Free, Almost Fair; Paraguay's Ambiguous Election.” NACLA Report on the Americas XXVII, 2 (September/October): 26–28.Google Scholar
Bobbio, N. (1987) La democracia socialista. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Documentas.Google Scholar
Bolivar, S. (1964) Obras Completas. Madrid, Spain.Google Scholar
Bollen, K. (1991) “Political Democracy: Conceptual and Measurement Traps,” pp. 3–20 in Inkeles, Alex (ed.) On Measuring Democracy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.Google Scholar
Bollen, K. (1980) “Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy.” American Sociological Review 45 (June): 370–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brasil. Escola Superior de Guerra (1983) Manual Básico. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil: Escola Superior de Guerra.Google Scholar
Bustmante, F. (1990) “ iEs posible la estabilización de un régimen de predominio civil? el caso de Ecuador,” pp. 95–115 in Moneta, Carlos Juan (ed.) Civiles y militares, fuerzas armadas y transición democrática. Caracas, Venezuela: Editorial Nueva Sociedad.Google Scholar
Camp, R. (1992) Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Camus, M. (1993) “Las razones de un ‘boinazo.'” APSI 451 (31 May-13 June): 14–15. Loveman: “Protected Democracies” AND Military Guardianship 177Google Scholar
Carr, B. and Ellner, S. (eds.) (1993) The Latin American Left From the Fall of Allende to Perestroika. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Castro, F. (1981) “Our Teachers Must Be an Example of Socialist Morality” (speech by Fidel Castro). Granma Weekly Review (19 July): 2.Google Scholar
Chile. Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación (Rettig Commision) (1991) Informe de la Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación (3 vols.). Santiago de Chile: Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación.Google Scholar
Chile. Estado Mayor General de Ejército. (1988) Subversión, Política, y Transitión. Santiago de Chile: Biblioteca Militar.Google Scholar
Chile. (1973) Decreto de Educaión, 1892 (21 November). Santiago de Chile: Gobierno de Chile.Google Scholar
Chile. (1958) Ley de seguridad interior del estado. Santiago de Chile: Gobierno de Chile.Google Scholar
Chirinos Arrieta, C. (1990) Terrorismo y Delito. Lima, Peru: Editorial Colmillo Blanco.Google Scholar
Collndres, O. R. (1988) Análisis comparativo de las constituciones politicas de Honduras (4th ed.). Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Graficentro Editores.Google Scholar
Colombia. Tribunal Permanente de los Pueblos. (1991) Proceso a la Impunidad de Crimenes de Lesa Humanidad en América Latina 1989-1991. Bogotá, Colombia: Tribunal Permanente de los Pueblos.Google Scholar
Colon de Larriategui, F. (1828) Juzgados Militares de España y Sus Indias (5 vols.). Paris, France: Emprenta de C. Farcy.Google Scholar
Comblin, J. (1979) The Church and the National Security State. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.Google Scholar
Comisión Andina de Juristas (1988) Peru y Chile, Poder Judicial y Derechos Humanos. Lima, Peru: Comisión Andina de Juristas.Google Scholar
Comisión Andina de Juristas (1988) Bolivia: neoliberalismo y derechos humanos. Lima, Peru: Comisión Andina de Juristas.Google Scholar
Conaghan, C. (1988) Restructuring Domination, Industrialists and the State in Ecuador. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Coppedge, M. and W. Reinicke (1991) “Measuring Polyarchy,” pp. 47–68 in Inkeles, Alex (ed.) On Measuring Democracy. New Brunswick, NT: Transaction Books.Google Scholar
Corradi, J. (1982-83) “The Mode of Destruction: Terrorism in Argentina.” Telos 54 (Winter): 61–76.Google Scholar
Dahl, R. (1982) Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dahl, R.. (1971) Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Desch, M. (1991) “Transitions to Democracy: The Role of Militaries” (3rd Draft, 12 July 1991); paper prepared by Visiting Scholar at the Center for International Studies. Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California (USC).Google Scholar
Diamond, L., Linz, J., and Lipset, S. (eds.) (1989) Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America. London, England: Ada-mantine Press.Google Scholar
Diaz Cardona, F. (1988) Fuerzas armadas, militarismo y constitución nacional en America Latina. México, DF: Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (UNAM).Google Scholar
Dipalma, G. (1990) To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
do Couto E Silva, Gen Golbery (1981) Conjuntura Política Nacional: O Poder Executivo e Geopolítica do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Livraria José Olympio.Google Scholar
Drake, P. and Silva, E. (1986) Elections and Democratization in Latin America, 1980-85. San Diego, CA: Center for Iberian and Latin American Studies, Institute of the Americas.Google Scholar
Dunkerley, J. (1984) Rebellion in the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia, 1952-1982. London, England: Verso.Google Scholar
Ecuador. (1987) Ley de Seguridad Nacional (Articles 36-40), Actualizada a 4 Junio.Google Scholar
Ecuador. (1979) Ley de Seguridad Nacional.Google Scholar
(La) Epoca (1994) “Fiscal Militar Encargo Reo por Sedición el Abogado Hector Salazar.” (April 15): 19.Google Scholar
Estudios Centroamericanos (ECA) (1993) “Consideraciones sobre la Ley de Amnistía” (autor J.E.A.). Nos. 534-535 (April-May): 414–419.Google Scholar
Fauriol, G. and Loser, E. (1988) Guatemala's Political Puzzle. New Bainswick, NJ: Transaction Books.Google Scholar
Feinrider, M. (1981) Judicial Review and the Protection of Human Rights Under Military Governments in Brazil and Argentina. Suffolk Transnational Law Journal 5, 2: 171–199.Google Scholar
Fishman, R. (1990) “Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy.” World Politics 42, 3 (April): 422–440.Google Scholar
Fitch, S. (1992) “Democracy, Human Rights, and the Armed Forces in Latin America,” pp. 181–213 in Hartlyn, Jonathan, Schoultz, Lars and Varas, Augusto (eds.) The United States and Latin America in the 1990s. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Fix-Zamudio, H. (1989) “La Justica Constitucional en America Latina,” pp. 451–532 in El Constitucionalismo en las Postrimerias del Siglo XX (Constitucionalismo IV). Mexico, DF: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM).Google Scholar
Flatley, T. (1970) “Latin American Armed Forces in the 1960s — A Review.” Military Review 50, 4 (April): 10–20.Google Scholar
Frieden, J. (1991) Debt, Development and Democracy: Modern Political Economy and Latin America, 1965-1985. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Funesde Torres, L. (1984) Honduras: derechoshumanos. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Centro de Documentation de Honduras.Google Scholar
Gamarra, E. (1991) The System of Justice in Bolivia: An Institutional Analysis. Miami, FL: Center for the Administration of Justice, Florida International University (FIU).Google Scholar
Garcia Mendez, E. (1987) Autoritarismo y control social: Argen-tina-Uruguay-Chile. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Hammurabi.Google Scholar
Garcia-Sayan, D. (1987) “Peru: Estados de Excepción y Régirnen Jurídico,” pp. 95–125 in García-Sayán, (ed.) Estados de Emergencia en la Region Andina. Lima, Peru: Comisión Andina de Juristas.Google Scholar
Gillespie, C. (1991) Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gonzalez Morales, F., Mera Figueroa, J. and Vargas Viancos, J. (1991) Protección democrática de la seguridad del estado, estados de excepdon y derecho penal politico. Santiago de Chile: Programa de Derechos Humanos, Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano.Google Scholar
Gonzalez Moya, C. (1990) Ley Orgánica Constitucional de las Fuerzas Armadas, (Ley No. 18948), Modificada por Ley No. 18967. Santiago de Chile: Editora Jurídica Publiley Ltd.Google Scholar
Gramajo Morales, H. (1989) Tésis de la estabilidad nacional. Guatemala City, Guatemala: Editorial del Ejército.Google Scholar
Groisman, E. (1990) “La Reconstrucción del Estado de Derecho en Argentina (1983-1989),” pp. 40–53 in Groisman, E. (ed.) El Derecho en la Transitión de la Dictadura a la Democracia: La Experiencia en América Latina. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Centra Editor de América Latina.Google Scholar
Grüber Odreman, H. (1993) Antecedentes históricos de la insurreción militar del 27-N-1992 in (ed.) Por el Honor de la Armas. Caracas, Venezuela: Ediciones Centauro.Google Scholar
Guzman, L. (1992) Políticos en uniforme: un balance del poder del EPS. Managua, Nicaragua: Instituto Nicaragiiense de Estudios Socio-Políticos.Google Scholar
Hahn, W. (ed.) (1987) Central America and the Reagan Doctrine. Lanham, MD: United States Strategic Institute and the Center for International Relations at Boston University.Google Scholar
Hunter, W. (1992) “Back to the Barracks? The Military in Post-Authoritarian Brazil.” Paper presented at the XVII Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Los Angeles (CA), 24–27 September.Google Scholar
Huntington, S. (1991) The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Instituto Centro Americano de Estudios Políticos (INCEP) (1986) Derechos humanos en Centroamerica 1986; Situación en El Salvador, Guatemala y Nicaragua. Guatemala City, Guatemala: Instituto CentroAmericano de Estudios Políticos (INCEP).Google Scholar
International Commission of Jurists (1992) A Breach of Impunity. The Trial for the Murder of Jesuits in El Salvador. New York, NY: Fordham University Press.Google Scholar
Isaacs, A. (1993) Military Rule and Transition in Ecuador, 1972-92. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
de la Jara Basombrio, E. (1993) “El Gobierno de la Impunidad.” Ideele, Ano 5, No. 59-60 (December): 50–56.Google Scholar
Jassen, R. (1989) Seineldin: El Ejército Traicionado, La Patria Vencida. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Verum et Militia.Google Scholar
Jensen, J. (1991) Army Surveillance in America, 1775-1980. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Jonas, S. (1991) The Battle for Guatemala: Rebels, Death Squads, and US Power. Boulder, CO: Westview Press Google Scholar
Karl, T. (1990) “Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America.” Comparative Politics 23, 1 (October): 1–23.Google Scholar
Karst, Kenneth L. and Rosenn, K. (1975) Law and Development in Latin America: A Case Book. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kjonnerod, E. (1992) Evolving US Strategy for Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press.Google Scholar
Latin American Studies Association (LASA) (1989) “The Chilean Plebiscite: A First Step Toward Redemocratization” (Report of the International Commission of the Latin American Studies Association to Observe the Chilean Plebiscite). Pittsburgh, PA: Latin American Studies Association (LASA).Google Scholar
Lijphart, A. (1984) Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Lijphart, A. (1989) “Democratic Political Systems: Types, Cases, Causes and Consequences.” Journal of Theoretical Politics 1 (January): 1–33.Google Scholar
Lira, E. and Castillo, M. (1991) Psicología de la Amenaza Política y del Miedo. Santiago de Chile: Instituto Latinoamericano de Salud Mental y Derechos Humanos (ILAS).Google Scholar
Lituma Arizaga, A. (1985) La nación y su seguridad. Editorial Publitecnica, n.d.: 187; [cited in Ycaza, 1985: 2731.Google Scholar
Lopez, G. (1986) “National Security Ideology as an Impetus to State Violence and State Terror,” pp. 73–95 in Stohl, Michael and López, George A. (eds.) Government Violence and Repression. New York, NY: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Lopez Garrido, D. (1987) El Aparto Policial en Espana. Barcelona, Spain: Ariel.Google Scholar
Los Angeles Times (1994) “Peru's Premier Reportedly Quits over Rights Case.” Los Angeles Times (17 February): A6.Google Scholar
Los Angeles Times (1993) “Salvador Rights Panel Findings.” (27 March): 14 Google Scholar
Loveman, B. (1993) The Constitution of Tyranny: Regimes of Exception in Spanish America. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Loveman, B. (1991) “ ¿Misión Cumplida? Civil-Military Relations and the Chilean Political Transition.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 33, 3 (Fall): 35–74.Google Scholar
Loveman, B. (1988) “Government and Regime Succession in Chile,” Tliird World Quarterly 10, 1 January): 260–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loveman, B. and Davies, T. Jr. (eds.) (1989) The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America (2nd ed.). Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
McAlister, L. (1957) The ‘Fuero Militar’ in New Spain, 1764-1800. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Maestre Alfonso, J. (ed.) (1989) “Uruguay: Texto de Acuerdo entre las Fuerzas Armadas y Políticos en que se Acuerda el Nuevo Proceso Democrático,” pp. 483–486 in Alfonso, Juan Maestre (ed.) Constituciones y Leyes Politicos de Amárica Latina, Filipinas y Guinea Ecuatorial, II; Los Régimenes de Seguridad Nacional, I: Chile, Uruguay. Sevilla, Espana: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla.Google Scholar
Mainwaring, S. (1992) “Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues,” pp. 294–341 in Mainwaring, S., O'Donnell, G. and Valenzuela, S. (eds.) Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Mainwaring, S., O'Donnell, G., and Valenzuela, S. (1992) Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Maldonado, J. (1988) Taura, Lo que no se ha dicho. Quito, Ecuador: Editorial El Conejo.Google Scholar
Margolis, M. (1994) “Alleged Coup Plot a Puzzling of Political Theater.” Los Angeles Times (15 January): A2.Google Scholar
Martz, J. (1988) “The Military in Ecuador: Policies and Politics of Authoritarian Rule” (Occasional Paper No. 3). Albuquerque, NM: Latin American Institute, University of New Mexico.Google Scholar
McSherry, J. P. (1992) “Military Power, Impunity and State-Society Change in Latin America.” Canadian Journal of Political Science XXV, 3 (September): 463–488.Google Scholar
Military Review (edicion hispanoamericana) (1992) “El Rol de las Fuerzas Armadas en la Sociedad; Doctrina Militar en el Acontecer Politico de SudAmerica.” (November-December): 3–15.Google Scholar
Molina Johnson, C. (1987) 1973: algunas de las razones del quiebre de la institucionalidad politica. Santiago de Chile: Estado Mayor del Ejercito.Google Scholar
Munck, G. (1993) “Beyond Electoralism in El Salvador: Conflict Resolution Through Negotiated Compromise.” Third World Quarterly 14, 1: 75–93.Google Scholar
(La) Nacion (Santiago de Chile) (1993) “Tensa situacion en Uruguay por actuacion de militares.” (12 June): 8–9.Google Scholar
(La) Nacion (Santiago de Chile) (1962) 24 September.Google Scholar
Neier, A. (1989) “Menem's Pardons and Purges.” New York limes (2 October).Google Scholar
O'Donnell, G. and Schmitter, P.. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Oehling, H. (1977) La funcion politica del ejercito: memorial del ejercito de Chile (edicion especial y restringida). Santiago de Chile: Biblioteca del Oficial, Estado Mayor General del Ejercito.Google Scholar
Ongania, J. (Gen.) (1964) “The Government of the Armed Forces and the National Community” (address delivered at West P oint, 6 August 1964, by General, later President, of Argentina); [cited in Potash, 1970: 117.]Google Scholar
Ortiz Crespo, G. (1986) La hora del general. Quito, Ecuador: Editorial El Conejo.Google Scholar
de Otto Pardo, I. (1985) Defensa de la constitucion y partidos politicos. Madrid, Spain: Centra de Estudios Constitucionales.Google Scholar
Palou Trias, J. (1992) “Las Fuerzas Armadas y la Transicion Constitucional en Colombia,” pp. 57–70 in Position Constitucional de las Fuerzas Armadas en Iberoamerica y en Espana. Sevilla, Espana: Tecnos.Google Scholar
Pease Garcia, H. (1979) “Peru: Del Reformismo Militar a la Democracia Tutelada,” pp. 439–474 in America Latina 80: Democracia y Movimento Popular. Lima, Peru: Centro de Estudios y Promotion del Desarrollo (Desco).Google Scholar
Penaherrera, P. B. (1988) El viernes negro, Antes y despues de Taura. Quito, Ecuador: Editorial El Conejo.Google Scholar
Perelli, C. (1990) “The Military's Perception of Threat in the Southern Cone of South America,” pp. 93–105 in Goodman, Louis W., Mendelson, J., and Rial, Juan (eds.) The Military and Democracy. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Perez Esquivel, L. (1992) “Marco Jundico de la Defensa Nacional, La Seguridad Interior y Las Fuerzas Armadas en Argentina y Brasil” (Informe Preliminar). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Centro de Estudios para una Democracia Social (CEDES).Google Scholar
Peru. (1981) “Tipifican el Delito de Terrorismo y Establecen Penas” (Decreto Legislativo No. 46, 10 March).Google Scholar
Philip, G. (1993) “The New Economic Liberalism and Democracy in Latin America: Friends or Enemies.” Third World Quarterly 14, 3: 555–571.Google Scholar
Philip, G. (1992) “The Venezuelan Coup Attempt of February 1992.” Government and Opposition 27, 4 (Fall): 454–469.Google Scholar
Pion-Berlin, D. (1992) “Military Autonomy and Emerging Democracies in South America.” Comparative Politics 25, 1 (October): 83–102.Google Scholar
Pion-Berlin, D. (1989a) “Latin American National Security Doctrine: Hard and Softline Themes.” Armed Forces and Society 15, 3 (Spring): 41–429.Google Scholar
Pion-Berlin, D. (1989b) The Ideology of State Teror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru. Boulder, Co: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Piotti, A. and Fernandez, A. (1985) Defensa de la Democracia, Nuevo enfoque sobre la represion de los delitos que atentan contra el orden constitucional. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Ediciones Tarso.Google Scholar
Potash, R. (1970) “Argentina,” pp. 85–126 in McAlister, Lyle N., Maingot, Anthony P., and Potash, Robert (eds.) The Military in Latin American Sociopolitical Evolution: Four Case Studies. Washington, DC: Center for Research in Social Systems.Google Scholar
Pridham, G. (1984) “Comparative Perspectives on the New Mediterranean Democracies: A Model of Regime Transition?” West European Politics 7, 2: 1–29.Google Scholar
Quispe Correa, A. (1982) “El proyecto nacional: la defensa nacional y la constitutión.” Defensa Nacional (Revista del Centro de Altos Estudios Militares) 2, 2 (December): 71–82.Google Scholar
Ramirez, G. (1989) La Cuestión Militar, Democracia Tutelada o Democracia Asociativa, El Caso Uruguayo, II. Montevideo, Uruguay: Area.Google Scholar
Ratrenbach, B. (1972) El Sistema Social-Militar en la Sociedad Moderna. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Pleamar.Google Scholar
Ratrenbach, B. (1959) Sociología militar. Buenos Aires, Argentina: pp. 128-29; [cited in Potash, 1970: 116-117.]Google Scholar
Remmer, K. (1991) Military Rule in Latin America. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Rial, J. (1992) Estructura legal de las fuerzas armadas del Uruguay: Un analisis politico. Montevideo, Uruguay: Sociedad de Analisis de Montevideo (CIESO/PEITHO).Google Scholar
Rial, J. (1990) Las fuerzas armadas en los anos 90, Una agenda de discusion. Montevideo, Uruguay: Sociedad de Analisis de Montevideo (PEITHO).Google Scholar
Rial, J. (1988) “Los militares en tanto ‘partido politico sustituto’ frente a la redemocratizacion en Uruguay,” in Varas, Augusto (ed.) La autonomia militar en America Latina. Caracas, Venezuela: Nueva Sociedad.Google Scholar
Rocha, V. A. (1988) La Militarización del Estado, América Latina 1960-1980. Lima, Peru: Instituto de Investigaciones Ecónomicas y Sociales, Facultad de Ingeniería Económica-Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería (IECOS-UNI).Google Scholar
Roett, R. (1984) Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Rouquie, A. (1987) The Military and the State in Latin America, (translated by Sigmund, Paul E.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Rubio Correa, M. (1990) “The Perception of the Subversive Threat in Pern,” pp. 107–122 in Goodman, Louis W., Mendelson, J. and Rial, Juan (eds.) The Military and Democracy. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Rustow, D. (1970) “Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model.” Comparative Politics 2, 3 (April): 337–363.Google Scholar
Salamon, L. (1992) Politíca y Militares en Honduras. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Centro de Documentación de Honduras.Google Scholar
Salamon, L. (1985) “The National Security Doctrine In Honduras: Analysis of the Fall of General Gustavo Alvarez Martínez,” pp. 197–207 in Packenham, Nancy and Street, Annie (eds.) Honduras, Portrait of a Captive Nation. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar
Salgado, H. (ed.) (1986) Las Reformas Constitucionales de 1986. Quito, Ecuador: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales (ILDIS).Google Scholar
Sanguinetti, J. (1991) El Temor y la Impaciencia, Ensayo Sobre la Transición Democratica en América Latina. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Fondo de Cultura Economica.Google Scholar
Schirmer, J. (1991) “Guatemala: Los militares y la tesis de estabilidad nacional,” pp. 183–219 in Kruijt, Dirk and Torres-Rivas, Edelberto (eds.) America Latina: Militares y Sociedad, I. San Jose, Costa Rica: FLACSO.Google Scholar
Schmitter, P. (1992) “The Consolidation of Democracy and the Representation of Social Groups.” American Behavioral Scientist 35, 4-5 (March-June): 422–449.Google Scholar
Schmitter, P. and Karl, T. (1991) “What Democracy is… and is Not.” Journal of Democracy 2, 3 (Summer): 75–88.Google Scholar
Schodt, D. (1987) Ecuador, An Andean Enigma. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Selkjson, M. (1987) “Democratization in Latin America: The Current Cycle,” pp. 3–12 in Malloy, James M. and Seligson, Mitchell A. (eds.) Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Justica, Servicio Paz Y (1989) Uruguay, Nunca Más: Human Rights Violations, 1972-1985 (translated by Elizabeth Hampsten with an introduction by Lawrence Weschler). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Skidmore, T. (1988) The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964-85. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sociedad de Análisis de Montevideo (PEITHO) (1992) Estructura legal de las fuerzas armadas del Uruguay: Un análisis político. Montevideo, Uruguay: CIESO/PEITHO. (spell out CIESO)Google Scholar
Stepan, A. (1988) Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Stepan, A. (1973) “The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion,” pp. 47–68 in Stepan, Alfred (ed.) In Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies and Future. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
de Toqueville, A. (1945) Democracy in America (2 volumes). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Vanhanen, T. (1990) The Process of Democratization: A Compara-tive Study of 147 States, 1980-1988. New York, NY: Crane Russak.Google Scholar
Varas, A. (ed.) (1988) La autonomía militar en America Latina. Caracas, Venezuela: Nueva Sociedad.Google Scholar
Villagran de Leon, F. (1993) “Thwarting the Guatemalan Coup.” Journal of Democracy 4, 4 (October): 117–124.Google Scholar
Villanueva, V. (1973) Ejército peruano, del caudillaje anárquico al militarismo reformista. Lima, Peru: Editorial Juan Mejía Baca.Google Scholar
Villanueva, V. (1972) El Caem y la Revolución de la Fuerza Armada. Lima, Peru: Institute de Estudios Peruanos (IEP).Google Scholar
Villavicencio, Felipe (1983) Delitos Contra la Seguridad Pública-Delito de Terrorismo (2nd ed.). Lima, Peru: Sesator.Google Scholar
Villegas, O. (1990) Testimonio de un Alegato. Buenos Aires, Argentina: N.P. Google Scholar
Von Hagen, A. (1993) “Army Tarnishes Efforts Toward Peru Democracy.” Los Angeles Times (1 May): A3.Google Scholar
Walker, I. (1990) Socialismo y democracia, Chile y Europa en perspectiva comparada. Santiago de Chile: Corporación de Investigaciones Económicas para América Latina (CIEPLAN)-HACHETTE.Google Scholar
Walter, K. and Williams, P. (1993) “The Military and Democratization in El Salvador.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 35, 1 (Spring): 39–87.Google Scholar
Weiner, M. and Ozbudun, E. (1987) Competitive Elections in Developing Countries. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Weinstein, M. (1988) Democracy at the Crossroads. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Weinstein, E., Lira, E. and Rojas, E. (1987) Trauma, Duelo y Reparacion. Santiago de Chile: FASIC/Editorial Inter Americana.Google Scholar
Whitehead, L. (1992) “The Alternatives to ‘Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective.” Political Studies XL (Special Issue): 146–159. Loveman: “Protected Democracies” and Military Guardianship 189Google Scholar
Ycaza, P. (1985) “Seguridad nacional y derechos humanos,” pp. 259–279 in Armas, Amparo et al. (ed.) Los derechos humanos: el caso ecuatoriano. Quito, Ecuador: Editorial El Conejo.Google Scholar
Youngers, C. (1992) “Peru Under Scrutiny: Human Rights and US Drug Policy” (Issue Brief 5; 13 July). Washington, DC: Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA).Google Scholar
Yurrita, A. (1990) “The Transition from Military to CivUian Rule in Guatemala,” pp. 75–90 in Goodman, Louis W., Mendelson, J., and Rial, Juan (eds.) The Military and Democracy. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Zagorski, P. (1992) Democracy vs. National Security: Civil-Military Relations in Latin America. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar