1 Wagley, Charles, An Introduction to Brazil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963 ), pp. 47–49.Google Scholar

2 Research for this article was done during two visits to Brazil: a long one, from July 1964 through December 1965, on a National Institute of Mental Health Fellowship and a Public Health Service Field Grant, and a return visit in the summer of 1969 on grants from the American Philosophical Society and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

3 Read, William R., New Patterns of Church Growth in Brazil (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1965).Google Scholar

4 Harmon A. Johnson, “Authority Over the Spirits: Brazilian Spiritism and Evangelical Church Growth” (Diss., Pasadena: Fuller Theological Seminary, 1969). Read, William R., Montorroso, V. M. and Johnson, Harmon A., Latin American Church Growth (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1969).Google Scholar

A complete account of the Fazenda Nova Vida is in preparation for presentation to the American Philosophical Society. Mr. Johnson graciously returned to Brazil in the summer of 1969 to assist the author in gathering data. He is anthropologically oriented and trained.

5 When Pedro Batista da Silva died in 1968 his lieutenants fought over who was to inherit the “kingdom.” A sergeant of police was beaten in the fray and solved the problem of succession with a submachine gun.

6 At the request of Antonio José dos Santos all of the names in this account are the actual names of people and places. Many of the original actors are now dead. Pastor Antônio believes that the publication of his story is a modern fulfillment of the prophecy made by Jesus to Mary Magdalene for having washed his feet and wiped them with the hairs of her head: “Wheresoever this gospel shall be preached in the whole world, there shall also this … be told for a memorial… .” Matthew 26:7.

7 In transcribing the story from tape I have attempted to retain the Biblical flavor and the dramatic emphases of the narrative by using capitals in places and by supplying subsidiary information to the text when it was implicit in the context. It was obtained by interrupting his remarks from time to time.

The assembleias he talks about are not Assembly of God churches but small, local independent groups of Protestant-oriented peoples of Catholic or Spiritist backgrounds who have been recruited or taken over by charismatic figures.

8 One of the problems with converting money into U.S. equivalences is that comparable purchasing power is seldom specified, making the whole process somewhat invidious.

9 A cabra is the word for “goat,” and an epithet for a Protestant.

10 Antônio José dos Santos had been both a Catholic beato and romeiro. He had led a pilgrimage to Joaseiro and knew intimately the story and process of Padre Cícero's ascendancy.

11 Coronel João Sá is now dead. He was what Brazilians call a coronel de patente, or the equivalent of our “Kentucky Colonel.”

12 There is a distinct tradition in recognizing the differential status of prisoners in Latin America, as well as in the Mediterranean culture tradition to which Latin America is heir.

13 Fazenda Nova Vida has since acquired more land and fenced all of its holdings with barbed wire.

14 Wagley, , An Introduction to Brazil, pp. 47–49.Google Scholar

15 For an account of the interlocking politico-economic interests of the drought region see Hirschman, Albert, Journeys Toward Progress (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1963), pp. 11–91.Google Scholar

16 da Cunha, Euclides, Rebellion in the Backlands, trans. Putnam, Samuel (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1944).Google Scholar

17 Cava, Ralph della, Miracle at Joaseiro (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970).Google Scholar

18 Cava, Ralph della, “Brazilian Messianism and National Institutions: a Reappraisal of Canudos and Joaseiro,” Hispanic American Historical Review 48, no. 3 (August 1968): 402–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

19 María Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, Movimentos Messiânicos: Tentativa de Classificacão Sociológica (São Paulo: Cadeira de Sociología II da Faculdade de Filosofía, Ciências e Letras, Universidade de São Paulo, 1962), p. 453.

20 de Queiroz, María Isaura Pereira, O Messianismo, no Brasil e no Mundo (São Paulo: Dominus Editôra, 1965).Google Scholar

21 de Queiroz, Maurício Vinhas, Messianismo e Conflíto Social: a Guerra Sertanejo do Contestado, 1911—1914 (Rio de Janeiro, 1966).Google Scholar

22 Willems, Emilio, Followers of the New Faith (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1967), p. 96.Google Scholar

23 The title was conferred by Honigsheim, Paul, “Sociology of Religion,” in Becker, Howard and Boskoff, Alvin, eds., Modern Sociological Theory (New York: The Dryden Press, 1957), pp. 451, 465-466, 478.Google Scholar The individual volumes are Jellinek, Georg The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens; a Contribution to Modern Constitutional History, (trans. Farrand, Max) (New York: Holt, 1901)Google Scholar; Tjroeltsch, Ernst, The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches, 2 vols., trans. Olive Wyon (New York: Harper, 1960)Google Scholar; and Weber, Max, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Parsons, Talcott (New York: Scribner, 1958).Google Scholar

24 Birnbaum, N., “Conflicting Interpretations of the Rise of Capitalism: Marx and Weber,” The British Journal of Sociology 4 (June 1953): 125–141 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gerth, H. H. and Mills, C. Wright, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1947), pp. 46–50 Google Scholar; and Green, Robert W., ed., Protestantism and Capitalism: the Weber Thesis and its Critics (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1959), pp. vii–viii.Google Scholar

25 Weber's urbanization thesis: Max Weber, The City, eds. and trans. Don Martindale and Gertrude Neuwirth (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1958), pp. 54-55; Weber, Max, General Economic History, trans. Knight, Frank (New York: Collier Books, 1961).Google Scholar

26 Troeltsch, , Teaching, 2: 642–646.Google Scholar

27 Reid, James S., The Municipalities of the Roman Empire (London: Cambridge University Press, 1913).Google Scholar

28 Braidwood, Robert J. and Howe, Bruce, “Southwestern Asia Beyond the Lands of the Mediterranean Littoral,” in Braidwood, Robert J. and Willey, Gordon R., eds. Courses Toward Urban Life (Chicago: Aldine, 1962), pp. 132–146.Google Scholar

29 Perrot, Jean, “Palestine-Syria-Cilicia,” in Braidwood, Robert J. and Willey, Gordon R., eds., Courses Toward Urban Life (Chicago: Aldine, 1962), pp. 161–162 Google Scholar; and Oppenheim, A. L. in Arensberg, Conrad M., Pearson, Harry W. and Polanyi, Karl, eds., Trade and Market in Early Empire (New York: The Free Press, 1957), p. 36.Google Scholar

30 Helen Churchill Semple, Geography of the Mediterranean Region (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1931), pp. 9-10, 179ff, 689ff.

31 A lucid summary of the rise of the artisans is Durant, Will, The Age of Faith (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1950), pp. 637–643.Google Scholar

The “reconstruction of states” is the phrase of Bloch, Marc, Feudal Society trans. Manyon, L. A. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964), 2: 352— 355, 421—437Google Scholar; for the quantity and quality of population migrations see Samuelsson, Kurt, Religion and Economic Action: a Critique of Max Weber (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1964) pp. 96–150, 130-131Google Scholar; for mercantilism and population see Haney, Lewis M., History of Economic Thought (New York: The Macmillan Company. 1949), pp. 124, 134ff.Google Scholar

32 The modern period: Moller, Herbert, ed., Population Movements in Modern European History (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964).Google Scholar The ancient period: Latourette, Kenneth Scott, The First Centuries: a History of the Expansion of Christianity (New York: Harper, 1937), pp. 1–44, passim.Google Scholar

33 Read, Patterns, pp. 128ff, 220ff; Willems, Followers, pp. 67ff, 83ff. A significant companion study for comparison with Emilio Willems’ data on the growth of Pentecostalism in Chile is Christian Lalive d'Epinay, Haven to the Masses (London: Lutterworth, 1969).

For a comprehensive guide to the study of Protestantism in all of Latin America see Sinclair, John H., Protestantism in Latin America: a Bibliographic Guide (Austin: Hispanic American Institute, 1967).Google Scholar

34 Furtado, Celso, The Economic Growth of Brazil: from Colonial to Modern Times (Berkeley: The University of California Press, 1963), pp. 131–132.Google Scholar

On folk culture and folk society: Foster, George M., “What is Folk Culture?” American Anthropologist 55 (1953).CrossRefGoogle Scholar One of the best summaries of the literature on the concept of the folk is: Shirley, Robert W., The End of a Tradition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970)Google Scholar, Introduction. It is a restudy of Emilio Willems’ Uma Vila Brasileira, or Cunha, São Paulo. Wolf, Eric R., Peasants (Englewoord Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966), is a standard work.Google Scholar

35 Paul B. Sears, “Commercial Economies,” in William L. Thomas, ed., Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1956), p. 423.

36 Juarez Rubens Brandão Lopes, Sociedade Industrial no Brasil (São Paulo: Difusao Européia do Livro, 1964), pp. 22-95. This is a penetrating analysis of the difficulties of converting the preindustrial, mobile, and status-conscious Brazilian from entrepreneurial aspirations to industrial labor.

37 This is the great hydroelectric project on the Rio Sao Francisco in the Brazilian Northeast, which is still in the process of construction. For an overview see Hirschman, , Journeys, pp. 50–58.Google Scholar

38 Pereira de Queiroz, Movimentos, p. 273n. For her observations upon another point of view regarding messianic movements see María Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, “Review of Vittorio Lanternari, Religions of the Oppressed: a Study of Modern Messianic Cults,” Current Anthropology 4 (1965).

39 On the development of Presbyterianism in Brazil see Ferreira, Julio Andrade, História da Igreja Presbiteriana do Brasil (São Paulo: Casa Editôra Presbiteriana, 1959), 1: 30-4, 37, 40, 46-8, passim.Google Scholar

An anthropological study of the agricultural frontier variety of Protestantism and an account of geographic and socioeconomic mobility among Protestants and Catholics alike is Donald Edward Curry, Lusiada: an Anthropological Study of the Growth of Protestantism in Brazil (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1968).

Crentes migrating from these interior churches carry with them a card to prove their good standing, and the receiving churches are supposed to maintain a file listing the originating churches. But I have seldom seen a large urban church which kept conscientious records, they tend instead to claim their membership as their own without much regard to the hard-working interior pastors.

40 Gammon, Samuel R., The Evangelical Invasion of Brazil (Richmond: The Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1910), pp. 121–122.Google Scholar

41 Davis, Merle J., How the Church Grows in Brazil (New York: World Missionary Council, 1943), pp. 72–73.Google Scholar