Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T02:41:16.842Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Stray animal and human defecation as sources of soil-transmitted helminth eggs in playgrounds of Peninsular Malaysia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 October 2014

S.N. Mohd Zain ,
R. Rahman  and
J.W. Lewis
S.N. Mohd Zain*
Affiliation:
Institute of Biological Science, University of Malaya, 50603Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
R. Rahman
Affiliation:
Institute of Biological Science, University of Malaya, 50603Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
J.W. Lewis
Affiliation:
School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, United Kingdom
*
*Fax: +60379674178 E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Soil contaminated with helminth eggs and protozoan cysts is a potential source of infection and poses a threat to the public, especially to young children frequenting playgrounds. The present study determines the levels of infection of helminth eggs in soil samples from urban and suburban playgrounds in five states in Peninsular Malaysia and identifies one source of contamination via faecal screening from stray animals. Three hundred soil samples from 60 playgrounds in five states in Peninsular Malaysia were screened using the centrifugal flotation technique to identify and determine egg/cyst counts per gram (EPG) for each parasite. All playgrounds, especially those in Penang, were found to be contaminated with eggs from four nematode genera, with Toxocara eggs (95.7%) the highest, followed by Ascaris (93.3%), Ancylostoma (88.3%) and Trichuris (77.0%). In addition, faeces from animal shelters were found to contain both helminth eggs and protozoan cysts, with overall infection rates being 54% and 57% for feline and canine samples, respectively. The most frequently occurring parasite in feline samples was Toxocara cati (37%; EPG, 42.47 ± 156.08), while in dog faeces it was Ancylostoma sp. (54%; EPG, 197.16 ± 383.28). Infection levels also tended to be influenced by season, type of park/playground and the texture of soil/faeces. The occurrence of Toxocara, Ancylostoma and Trichuris eggs in soil samples highlights the risk of transmission to the human population, especially children, while the presence of Ascaris eggs suggests a human source of contamination and raises the issue of hygiene standards and public health risks at sites under investigation.

Type
Research Papers
Information
Journal of Helminthology , Volume 89 , Issue 6 , November 2015 , pp. 740 - 747
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, E.J., Stephenson, L.S., Latham, M.C. & Kinoti, S.N. (1994) Physical activity and growth of Kenyan school children with hookworm, Trichuris trichiura and Ascaris lumbricoides infections are improved after treatment with Albendazole. Journal of Nutrition 124, 1199–1206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ajala, M.O. & Asaolu, S.O. (1995) Efficiency of the salt floatation technique in the recovery of Ascaris lumbricoides eggs from the soil. Journal of Helminthology 69, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alonso, J.M., Stein, M., Chamorro, M.C. & Bojanich, M.V. (2001) Contamination of soils with eggs of Toxocara in a subtropical city in Argentina. Journal of Helminthology 75, 165–168.Google Scholar
Ayaji, O.O. & Duhlinska, D.D. (1998) Distribution of Toxocara eggs in Jos and Dutse-Kura, Plateau State, Nigeria. Science Forum 1, 31–37.Google Scholar
Blaszkowska, J., Kurnatowski, P. & Damiecka, P. (2011) Contamination of the soil by eggs of geohelminths in rural areas of Lodz district, Poland. Helminthologia 48, 67–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bundy, D.A.P., Kan, S.P. & Rose, R. (1988) Age related prevalence, intensity, and frequency distribution of gastrointestinal helminth infection in urban slum school children from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82, 289–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chieffi, P.P. & Muller, E.E. (1976) Prevalencia de parasitismo por Toxocara canis em caese presenca de ovos de Toxocara sp. no solo de localidades publicas da zona urbana do município de Londrina, estado do Parana, Brasil. Revista de Saude Publica 10, 367–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Correa, G.L.B., Michelon, E. & Lagaggio, V.R.A. (1995) Contaminação do solo por ovos, larvas de helmintos e oocistos de protozoários, em praças públicas de Santa Maria e sua importância em saúde pública. Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinaria 4, 137.Google Scholar
Dada, B.J.O. & Lindquist, W.D. (1979) Prevalence of Toxocara spp. eggs in some public grounds and highway rest areas in Kansas. Journal of Helminthology 53, 145–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubinsky, P., Havasivoa-Reiterova, K. & Petko, B. (1995) Role of small mammals in the epidemiology of toxocariasis. Journal of Parasitology 110, 187–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubna, S., Langrova, I., Jankovska, I., Vadlejch, J., Pekar, S., Napravnik, J. & Fechtner, J. (2007) Contamination of soil with Toxocara eggs in urban (Prague) and rural areas in the Czech Republic. Veterinary Parasitology 144, 81–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, A. & Keymer, A. (1986) Factors affecting the reliability of the McMaster technique. Journal of Helminthology 60, 260–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duwel, D. (1984) The prevalence of Toxocara eggs in the sand in children's playgrounds in Frankfurt. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 78, 633–636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glickman, L.T. & Schantz, P.M. (1981) Epidemiology and pathogenesis of zoonotic toxocariosis. Epidemiologic Reviews 3, 230–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Habluetzel, A., Traldi, G., Ruggieri, S., Scuppa, P., Marchetti, R., Menghini, G. & Esposito, F. (2003) An estimation of Toxocara canis prevalence in dogs, environmental egg contamination and risk of human infection in the Marche region of Italy. Veterinary Parasitology 133, 243–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Himonas, C., Antoniadou-Sotiriadou, K. & Frydas, S. (1992) Research survey on the prevalence of Toxocara ova in the soil of public parks in Thessaloniki. Helliniki-Tatriki 58, 333–339.Google Scholar
Horiuchi, S., Paller, V.G. & Uga, S. (2013) Soil contamination by parasite eggs in rural village in the Philippines. Tropical Biomedicine 30, 495–503.Google ScholarPubMed
Jittapalapong, S., Inparnkaew, T., Pinyopanuwat, N., Kengradomkij, C., Sangvaranond, A. & Wongnakphet, (2007) Gastrointestinal parasites of stray cats in Bangkok Metropolitan Areas, Thailand. Kasetsart Journal 41, 69–73.Google Scholar
Koroma, M.M., Williams, A.M., De La Haye, R.R. & Hodges, M. (1996) Effects of albendazole on growth of primary school children and the prevalence and intensity of soil-transmitted helminths in Sierra Leone. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 42, 371–372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kutdang, E.T., Bukbuk, D.N. & Ajayi, J.A. (2010) The prevalence of intestinal helminths of dogs (Canis familaris) in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Researcher 2, 51–56.Google Scholar
Loh, A.G. & Israf, D.A. (1998) Tests on the centrifugal floatation technique and its use in estimating the prevalence of Toxocara in soil samples from urban and suburban areas of Malaysia. Journal of Helminthology 72, 39–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahdi, N.K. & Ali, H.A. (1993) Toxocara eggs in the soil of public places and schools in Basrah, Iraq. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 87, 201–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahdy, A.K., Yvonne, A.L., Ngui, R., Siti Fatimah, M.R., Choy, S.H., Yap, N.J., Al-Mekhlafi, H.M., Ibrahim, J. & Surin, J. (2012) Prevalence and zoonotic potential of canine hookworms in Malaysia. Parasites and Vectors 5, 88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandarino-Pereira, A., de Souza, F.S., Lopes, C.W. & Pereira, M.J. (2010) Prevalence of parasites in soil and dog feces according to diagnostic tests. Veterinary Parasitology 170, 176–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolis, L., Esch, G.W., Holmes, J.C., Kuris, A.M. & Schad, G.A. (1982) The use of ecological terms in parasitology (report of an Ad Hoc committee of the American Society of Parasitologists). Journal of Parasitology 68, 131–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mizgajska, H. (1997) The role of some environmental factors in the contamination of soil with Toxocara spp. and other geohelminth eggs. International Journal of Parasitology 46, 67–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mizgajska, H. (2001) Eggs of Toxocara spp. in the environment and their public health implications. Journal of Helminthology 75, 147–151.Google ScholarPubMed
Mohd Zain, S.N., Norhidayu, S., Pal, P. & Lewis, J.W. (2013) Macroparasite communities in stray cat populations from urban cities in Peninsular Malaysia. Veterinary Parasitology 196, 469–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molyneux, D.H., Hotez, P.J. & Fenwick, A. (2005) ‘Rapid impact interventions’: how a health policy of integrated control of Africa's neglected tropical diseases could benefit the poor. PLoS Medicine 10, 1371.Google Scholar
Ngui, R., Lim, Y.A.L., Traub, R., Mahmud, R. & Mistam, M.S. (2012) Epidemiological and genetic data supporting the transmission of Ancylostoma ceylanicum among human and domestic animals. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6, 1522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nokes, C., Grantham-McGregor, S.M., Sawyer, A.W., Cooper, E.S. & Bundy, D.A.P. (1992) Parasitic helminth infection and cognitive function in school children. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 247, 77–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Noor Azian, M.Y., Sakhone, L., Hakim, S.L., Yusri, M.Y., Nurulsyamzawaty, Y., Zuhaizam, A.H., Rodi, I.M. & Maslawaty, M.N. (2008) Detection of helminth infections in dogs and soil contamination in rural and urban areas. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 39, 205–212.Google Scholar
Nurdian, Y. (2004) Soil contamination by parasite eggs in two urban villages of Jember. Jurnal Ilmu Dasar 5, 50–54.Google Scholar
Omudu, E.A., Amuta, E.U., Unoqur, L.B. & Okoye, L.A. (2003) Prevalence of Toxocara canis ova in dog faeces and soil samples collected from public parks in Makurdi, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 24, 137–142.Google Scholar
Pal, P. & Lewis, J.W. (2004) Parasite aggregations in host populations using reformulated negative binomial model. Journal of Helminthology 78, 57–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rahman, W.A. (1998) Helminthic infections of urban and rural schoolchildren in Penang Island, Malaysia: implications for control. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 29, 596–598.Google Scholar
Rai, S.K., Uga, S., Ono, K., Rai, G. & Matsumura, T. (2000) Contamination of soil with helminth parasite eggs in Nepal. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 31, 388–393.Google ScholarPubMed
Rajeswari, B., Sinniah, B. & Hasnah, H. (1994) Socio-economic factors associated with intestinal parasites among children living in Gombak, Malaysia. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health 7, 21–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Reiczigel, J. & Rózsa, L. (2001) Quantitative Parasitology 2.0. Budapest, distributed by the authors. Available athttp://bio.univet.hu (accessed accessed 10 December 2012).Google Scholar
Rozsa, L., Reiczigel, J. & Majoros, G. (2000) Quantifying parasites in samples of hosts. Journal of Parasitology 86, 228–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubel, D. & Wisnivesky, C. (2005) Magnitude and distribution of canine fecal contamination and helminth eggs in two areas of different urban structure, Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina. Veterinary Parasitology 133, 339–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shalaby, H., Abdel-Shafy, S. & Derbala, A. (2010) The role of dogs in transmission of Ascaris lumbricoides for humans. Parasitology Research 106, 1021–1026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sommerfelt, I., Degregorio, O., Barrera, M. & Gallo, G. (1992) Presence of Toxocara eggs in public parks of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1989–1990. Revue de Medecine Veterinaire Buenos Aires 73, 70–74.Google Scholar
Stephenson, L.S., Latham, M.C., Kinoti, S.N., Kurz, K.M. & Brigham, H. (1990) Improvements in physical fitness of Kenyan schoolboys infected with hookworm, Trichuris trichiura and Ascaris lumbricoides following a single dose of albendazole. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84, 277–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stojcevic, D., Susic, V. & Lucinger, S. (2010) Contamination of soil and sand parasite elements as a risk factor for human health in public parks and playgrounds in Pula, Croatia. Veterinarski Arhiv 80, 733–742.Google Scholar
Tanwar, R.K. & Kachawha, S. (2007) Prevalence of worm infestations in stray dogs in and around Jodhpur. Journal of Veterinary Parasitology 21, 171–172.Google Scholar
Traub, R.J., Robertson, I.D., Irwin, P., Mencke, N. & Thompson, R.C. (2002) The role of dogs in transmission of gastrointestinal parasites in a remote tea-growing community in Northeastern India. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 67, 539–545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Traub, R.J., Robertson, I.D., Irwin, P.J., Mencke, N. & Thompson, R.C. (2005) Canine gastrointestinal parasite zoonoses in India. Trends in Parasitology 21, 42–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uga, S. & Kataoka, N. (1995) Measures to control Toxocara egg contamination in sandpits of public parks. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 52, 21–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uga, S., Matsuo, J., Kimura, D., Rai, S.K., Koshino, Y. & Igarashi, K. (2000) Differentiation of Toxocara canis and T. cati eggs by light and scanning electron microscopy. Veterinary Parasitology 92, 287–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, K. & Grenfell, B.T. (1997) Generalized linear modeling for parasitologists. Parasitology Today 13, 33–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zibaei, M. & Uga, S. (2008) Contamination by Toxocara spp. eggs in sandpits in Kobe, Japan. Journal of Environment Contamination Technology 26, 32–37.Google Scholar
Zibaei, M., Abdollahpour, F., Birjandi, M. & Firoozeh, F. (2010) Soil contamination with Toxocara spp. eggs in the public parks from three areas of Khorram Abad, Iran. Nepal Medical College Journal 12, 63–65.Google ScholarPubMed