Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T05:04:17.614Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Parasitoses of the human central nervous system

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 October 2012

J. Finsterer  and
H. Auer
J. Finsterer*
Affiliation:
Krankenanstalt Rudolfstiftung, Vienna, Austria Danube University Krems, Krems, Austria
H. Auer
Affiliation:
Department of Medical Parasitology, Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center of Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
*
* Fax: +43-1-71,165–2029, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Cerebral involvement in parasitoses is an important clinical manifestation of most of the human parasitoses. Parasites that have been described to affect the central nervous system (CNS), either as the dominant or as a collateral feature, include cestodes (Taenia solium (neurocysticerciasis), Echinococcus granulosus (cerebral cystic echinococcosis), E. multilocularis (cerebral alveolar echinococcosis), Spirometra mansoni (neurosparganosis)), nematodes (Toxocara canis and T. cati (neurotoxocariasis), Trichinella spiralis (neurotrichinelliasis), Angiostrongylus cantonensis and A. costaricensis (neuroangiostrongyliasis), Gnathostoma spinigerum (gnathostomiasis)), trematodes (Schistosoma mansoni (cerebral bilharziosis), Paragonimus westermani (neuroparagonimiasis)), or protozoa (Toxoplasma gondii (neurotoxoplasmosis), Acanthamoeba spp. or Balamuthia mandrillaris (granulomatous amoebic encephalitis), Naegleria (primary amoebic meningo-encephalitis), Entamoeba histolytica (brain abscess), Plasmodium falciparum (cerebral malaria), Trypanosoma brucei gambiense/rhodesiense (sleeping sickness) or Trypanosoma cruzi (cerebral Chagas disease)). Adults or larvae of helminths or protozoa enter the CNS and cause meningitis, encephalitis, ventriculitis, myelitis, ischaemic stroke, bleeding, venous thrombosis or cerebral abscess, clinically manifesting as headache, epilepsy, weakness, cognitive decline, impaired consciousness, confusion, coma or focal neurological deficits. Diagnosis of cerebral parasitoses is dependent on the causative agent. Available diagnostic tools include clinical presentation, blood tests (eosinophilia, plasmodia in blood smear, antibodies against the parasite), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) investigations, imaging findings and occasionally cerebral biopsy. Treatment relies on drugs and sometimes surgery. Outcome of cerebral parasitoses is highly variable, depending on the effect of drugs, whether they are self-limiting (e.g. Angiostrongylus costaricensis) or whether they remain undetected or asymptomatic, like 25% of neurocysticerciasis cases.

Type
Review
Information
Journal of Helminthology , Volume 87 , Issue 3 , September 2013 , pp. 257 - 270
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdel Razek, A.A., Watcharakorn, A. & Castillo, M. (2011) Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system. Neuroimaging Clinincs of North America 21, 815–841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adurthi, S., Mahadevan, A., Bantwal, R., Satishchandra, P., Ramprasad, S., Sridhar, H., Shankar, S.K., Nath, A. & Jayshree, R.S. (2011) Diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis. Annals of the Indian Academy of Neurology 14, 145–146.Google ScholarPubMed
Agapejev, S., Parra-Marinello, J.L., Bazan, R., Ueda, A.K. & Zanini, M.A. (2011) Aneurysm and neurocysticercosis: casual or causal relationship? Case report and review of the literature. Case Reports in Medicine 2011, 782496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akpek, G., Uslu, A., Huebner, T., Taner, A., Rapoport, A.P., Gojo, I., Akpolat, Y.T., Ioffe, O., Kleinberg, M. & Baer, M.R. (2011) Granulomatous amebic encephalitis: an under-recognized cause of infectious mortality after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Transplant Infectious Disease 13, 366–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altas, M., Aras, M., Serarslan, Y., Davran, R., Evirgen, O. & Yilmaz, N. (2010) A medically treated multiple cerebral hydatid cyst disease. Journal of Neurosurgical Sciences 54, 79–82.Google ScholarPubMed
Barrett, M.P., Boykin, D.W., Brun, R. & Tidwell, R.R. (2007) Human African trypanosomiasis: pharmacological re-engagement with a neglected disease. British Journal of Pharmacology 152, 1155–1171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartuliene, A., Liausediene, R. & Motiejuniene, V. (2009) Trichinellosis outbreak in Lithuania, Ukmerge region, June 2009. European Surveillance 24, 14.Google Scholar
Baykaner, M.K., Doğulu, F., Oztürk, G., Edali, N. & Tali, T. (2000) A viable residual spinal hydatid cyst cured with albendazole. Case report. Journal of Neurosurgery 93 (Suppl 1), 142–144.Google ScholarPubMed
Beare, N.A., Lewallen, S., Taylor, T.E. & Molyneux, M.E. (2011) Redefining cerebral malaria by including malaria retinopathy. Future Microbiology 6, 349–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boongird, P., Phuapradit, P., Siridej, N., Chirachariyavej, T., Chuahirun, S. & Vejjajiva, A. (1977) Neurological manifestations of gnathostomiasis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 31, 279–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buffet, P.A., Safeukui, I., Deplaine, G., Brousse, V., Prendki, V., Thellier, M., Turner, G.D. & Mercereau-Puijalon, O. (2011) The pathogenesis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in humans: insights from splenic physiology. Blood 117, 381–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buguet, A., Bert, J., Tapie, P., Tabaraud, F., Doua, F., Lonsdorfer, J., Bogui, P. & Dumas, M. (1993) Sleep–wake cycle in human African trypanosomiasis. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 10, 190–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bunyaratavej, K., Pongpunlert, W., Jongwutiwes, S. & Likitnukul, S. (2008) Spinal gnathostomiasis resembling an intrinsic cord tumor/myelitis in a 4-year-old boy. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 39, 800–803.Google Scholar
Burchmore, R.J., Ogbunude, P.O., Enanga, B. & Barrett, M.P. (2002) Chemotherapy of human African trypanosomiasis. Current Pharmaceutical Design 8, 256–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, J.A., Mung'ala-Odera, V., Neville, B.G., Murira, G., Mturi, N., Musumba, C. & Newton, C.R. (2005) Persistent neurocognitive impairments associated with severe falciparum malaria in Kenyan children. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 76, 476–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cha, S.H., Chang, K.H., Cho, S.Y., Han, M.H., Kong, Y., Suh, D.C., Choi, C.G., Kang, H.K. & Kim, M.S. (1994) Cerebral paragonimiasis in early active stage: CT and MR features. American Journal of Roentgenology 162, 141–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, K.H. & Han, M.H. (1998) MRI of CNS parasitic diseases. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 8, 297–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Checkley, A.M., Pepin, J., Gibson, W.C., Taylor, M.N., Jäger, H.R. & Mabey, D.C. (2007) Human African trypanosomiasis: diagnosis, relapse and survival after severe melarsoprol-induced encephalopathy. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 101, 523–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, Z., Zhu, G., Lin, J., Wu, N. & Feng, H. (2008) Acute cerebral paragonimiasis presenting as hemorrhagic stroke in a child. Pediatric Neurology 39, 133–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choo, J.D., Suh, B.S., Lee, H.S., Lee, J.S., Song, C.J., Shin, D.W. & Lee, Y.H. (2003) Chronic cerebral paragonimiasis combined with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69, 466–469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, V., Ceballos, V., Rodríguez, N., González, C., Marciano, B., Dackiewicz, N. & Berberian, G. (2010) Chagas' disease as a cause of cerebral mass in a patient with lymphoblastic leukemia in remission. Archivos Argentinos de Pediatria 108, 134–137.Google Scholar
Córdova, E., Maiolo, E., Corti, M. & Orduña, T. (2010) Neurological manifestations of Chagas' disease. Neurological Research 32, 238–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courtioux, B., Pervieux, L., Bisser, S. & Bouteille, B. (2008) Criteria for diagnosis of the neurological stage of human African trypanosomiasis: update and perspectives. Médecine Tropicale 68, 17–23.Google Scholar
Dauriac-Le Masson, V., Chochon, F., Demeret, S. & Pierrot-Deseilligny, C. (2005) Toxocara canis meningomyelitis. Journal of Neurology 252, 1267–1268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Brutto, O.H. & Del Brutto, V.J. (2012) Changing pattern of neurocysticercosis in an urban endemic center (Guayaquil, Ecuador). Journal of the Neurological Sciences 315, 64–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deng, L., Xiong, P. & Qian, S. (2011) Diagnosis and stereotactic aspiration treatment of cerebral sparganosis: summary of 11 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery 114, 1421–1425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dondorp, A., Nosten, F., Stepniewska, K., Day, N., White, N. & South East Asian Quinine Artesunate Malaria Trial (SEAQUAMAT) Group (2005) Artesunate versus quinine for treatment of severe falciparum malaria: a randomised trial. Lancet 366, 717–725.Google ScholarPubMed
Dondorp, A.M., Fanello, C.I., Hendriksen, I.C., Gomes, E., Seni, A., Chhaganlal, K.D., Bojang, K., Olaosebikan, R., Anunobi, N., Maitland, K., Kivaya, E., Agbenyega, T., Nguah, S.B., Evans, J., Gesase, S., Kahabuka, C., Mtove, G., Nadjm, B., Deen, J., Mwanga-Amumpaire, J., Nansumba, M., Karema, C., Umulisa, N., Uwimana, A., Mokuolu, O.A., Adedoyin, O.T., Johnson, W.B., Tshefu, A.K., Onyamboko, M.A., Sakulthaew, T., Ngum, W.P., Silamut, K., Stepniewska, K., Woodrow, C.J., Bethell, D., Wills, B., Oneko, M., Peto, T.E., von Seidlein, L., Day, N.P., White, N.J. & AQUAMAT group, (2010) Artesunate versus quinine in the treatment of severe falciparum malaria in African children (AQUAMAT): an open-label, randomised trial. Lancet 376, 1647–1657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorovini-Zis, K., Schmidt, K., Huynh, H., Fu, W., Whitten, R.O., Milner, D., Kamiza, S., Molyneux, M. & Taylor, T.E. (2011) The neuropathology of fatal cerebral malaria in Malawian children. American Journal of Pathology 178, 2146–2158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doyle, J.S., Campbell, E., Fuller, A., Spelman, D.W., Cameron, R., Malham, G., Gin, D. & Lewin, S.R. (2011) Balamuthia mandrillaris brain abscess successfully treated with complete surgical excision and prolonged combination antimicrobial therapy. Journal of Neurosurgery 114, 458–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Druschky, K.F., Niederstadt, T., Jourdan, W., Stoltze, D. & Heckl, R. (1995) High-grade transverse syndrome caused by echinococcus cysts. Nervenarzt 66, 136–139.Google ScholarPubMed
Duggal, S., Mahajan, R.K., Duggal, N. & Hans, C. (2011) Case of sparganosis: a diagnostic dilemma. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology 29, 183–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duprez, T.P.J., Bigaignon, G., Delgrange, E., Desfontaines, P., Hermans, M., Vervoort, T., Sindic, C.J. & Buysschaert, M. (1996) MRI of cervical cord lesions and their resolution in Toxocara canis myelopathy. Neuroradiology 38, 792–795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
el Koussa, S., Chemaly, R., Fabre-Bou Abboud, V., Tamraz, J. & Haddad, N. (1994) Trichinosis and cerebral sinocavernous thrombosis. Revue Neurologique (Paris) 150, 464–466.Google ScholarPubMed
Ferrari, T.C. & Moreira, P.R. (2011) Neuroschistosomiasis: clinical symptoms and pathogenesis. Lancet Neurology 10, 853–864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finsterer, J. & Auer, H. (2007) Neurotoxocarosis. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 49, 279–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallardo, M.T., Mateos, L., Artieda, J., Wesslen, L., Ruiz, C., García, M.A., Galmés-Truyols, A., Martin, A., Hernández-Pezzi, G., Andersson, Y., Gárate, T. & Christensson, D. (2007) Outbreak of trichinellosis in Spain and Sweden due to consumption of wild boar meat contaminated with Trichinella britovi. European Surveillance 12, E070315.1.Google ScholarPubMed
Garcia, H.H., Lescano, A.G., Lanchote, V.L., Pretell, E.J., Gonzales, I., Bustos, J.A., Takayanagui, O.M., Bonato, P.S., Horton, J., Saavedra, H., Gonzalez, A.E., Gilman, R.H. & Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru (2011) Pharmacokinetics of combined treatment with praziquantel and albendazole in neurocysticercosis. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 72, 77–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia-Pedrique, M.E., Diaz-Suarez, O. & Estevez, J. (2004) Prevalence of infection by Toxocara in schoolchildren in the community of El Mojan, Zulia State, Venezuela. Investigationes Clinicas 45, 347–354.Google ScholarPubMed
Gelal, F., Kumral, E., Vidinli, B.D., Erdogan, D., Yucel, K. & Erdogan, N. (2005) Diffusion-weighted and conventional MR imaging in neurotrichinosis. Acta Radiologica 46, 196–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Germann, R., Schächtele, M., Nessler, G., Seitz, U. & Kniehl, E. (2003) Cerebral gnathostomiasis as a cause of an extended intracranial bleeding. Klinische Paediatrie 215, 223–225.Google ScholarPubMed
Gill, D., Chatha, D. & Carpio-O'Donovan, R. (2003) MR imaging findings in African trypansomiasis. American Journal of Neuroradiology 24, 1383–1385.Google ScholarPubMed
Grau, G.E. & Craig, A.G. (2012) Cerebral malaria pathogenesis: revisiting parasite and host contributions. Future Microbiology 7, 291–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, S.R., Park, J.K., Kim, Y.I. & Son, B.C. (2001) Posterior cerebral artery infarction caused by cerebral sparganosis-induced vasculitis. European Neurology 46, 105–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Healy, J. (2002) Balamuthia amebic encephalitis: radiographic and pathologic findings. American Journal of Neuroradiology 23, 486–489.Google ScholarPubMed
Ho, Y.C., Sun, H.Y., Chen, M.Y., Hsieh, S.M., Sheng, W.H. & Chang, S.C. (2008) Clinical presentation and outcome of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection 41, 386–392.Google ScholarPubMed
Idro, R., Marsh, K., John, C.C. & Newton, C.R. (2010) Cerebral malaria: mechanisms of brain injury and strategies for improved neurocognitive outcome. Pediatric Research 68, 267–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Imai, K., Koibuchi, T., Kumagai, T., Maeda, T., Osada, Y., Ohta, N., Koga, M., Nakamura, H., Miura, T., Iwamoto, A. & Fujii, T. (2011) Cerebral schistosomiasis due to Schistosoma haematobium confirmed by PCR analysis of brain specimen. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 49, 3703–3706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, R.T., Nare, B. & Phillips, M.A. (2011) State of the art in African trypanosome drug discovery. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 11, 1255–1274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeong, S.C., Bae, J.C., Hwang, S.H., Kim, H.C. & Lee, B.C. (1998) Cerebral sparganosis with intracerebral hemorrhage: a case report. Neurology 50, 503–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jin, E.H., Ma, Q., Ma, D.Q., He, W., Ji, A.P. & Yin, C.H. (2008) Magnetic resonance imaging of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis caused by Angiostrongylus cantonensis following eating freshwater snails. Chinese Medical Journal (Engl.) 121, 67–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
John, C.C., Kutamba, E., Mugarura, K. & Opoka, R.O. (2010) Adjunctive therapy for cerebral malaria and other severe forms of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 8, 997–1008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jung-Cook, H. (2012) Pharmacokinetic variability of anthelmintics: implications for the treatment of neurocysticercosis. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology 5, 21–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanpittaya, J., Sawanyawisuth, K., Intapan, P.M., Khotsri, P., Chotmongkol, V. & Maleewong, W. (2012) A comparative study of neuroimaging features between human neuro-gnathostomiasis and angiostrongyliasis. Neurological Sciences 33, 893–898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, B., Das, S., Jain, S., Agarwal, A., Kaushik, J.S. & Kaur, I.R. (2012) Correlation between the clinico-radiological heterogeneity and the immune-inflammatory profiles in pediatric patients with neurocysticercosis from a tertiary referral centre. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 58, 320–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaw, G.J. & Sitoh, Y.Y. (2001) Clinics in diagnostic imaging (58). Chronic cerebral paragonimiasis. Singapore Medical Journal 42, 89–91.Google ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, P.G. (2008) The continuing problem of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Annals of Neurology 64, 116–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khade, P., Lemos, R.S. & Toussaint, L.G. (2011) What is the utility of postoperative antihelminthic therapy after resection for intraventricular neurocysticercosis? World Neurosurgery (in press).Google ScholarPubMed
Knezević, K., Turkulov, V., Canak, G., Lalosević, V., & Tomić, S. (2001) Neurotrichinosis. Medicinski Pregled 54, 483–485.Google ScholarPubMed
Kongsaengdao, S., Samintarapanya, K., Oranratnachai, K., Prapakarn, W. & Apichartpiyakul, C. (2008) Randomized controlled trial of pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine versus trimethoprim plus sulfamethoxazole for treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS patients. Journal of the International Association of Physicians for AIDS Care (Chicago) 7, 11–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, I.H., Kim, S.T., Oh, D.K., Kim, H.J., Kim, K.H., Jeon, P. & Byun, H.S. (2010) MRI findings of spinal visceral larva migrans of Toxocara canis. European Journal of Radiology 75, 236–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liao, C.W., Cho, W.L., Kao, T.C., Su, K.E., Lin, Y.H. & Fan, C.K. (2008) Blood–brain barrier impairment with enhanced SP, NK-1R, GFAP and claudin-5 expressions in experimental cerebral toxocariasis. Parasite Immunology 30, 525–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, R., Dong, H.F., Guo, Y., Zhao, Q.P. & Jiang, M.S. (2011) Efficacy of praziquantel and artemisinin derivatives for the treatment and prevention of human schistosomiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Parasites, Vectors 4, 201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lury, K. & Castillo, M. (2005) Chagas' disease involving the brain and spinal cord: MRI findings. American Journal of Roentgenology 185, 550–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lv, S., Zhang, Y., Steinmann, P., Zhou, X.N. & Utzinger, J. (2010) Helminth infections of the central nervous system occurring in Southeast Asia and the Far East. Advances in Parasitology 72, 351–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maritschnegg, P., Sovinz, P., Lackner, H., Benesch, M., Nebl, A., Schwinger, W., Walochnik, J. & Urban, C. (2011) Granulomatous amebic encephalitis in a child with acute lymphoblastic leukemia successfully treated with multimodal antimicrobial therapy and hyperbaric oxygen. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 49, 446–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marquez, J.M. & Arauz, A. (2012) Cerebrovascular complications of neurocysticercosis. Neurologist 18, 17–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masamed, R., Meleis, A., Lee, E.W. & Hathout, G.M. (2009) Cerebral toxoplasmosis: case review and description of a new imaging sign. Clinical Radiology 64, 560–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayor, S. (2008) WHO report shows progress in efforts to reduce malaria incidence. British Medical Journal 337, a1678. doi:10.1136/bmj.a1678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meira, C.S., Vidal, J.E., Costa-Silva, T.A., Frazatti-Gallina, N. & Pereira-Chioccola, V.L. (2011) Immunodiagnosis in cerebrospinal fluid of cerebral toxoplasmosis and HIV-infected patients using Toxoplasma gondii excreted/secreted antigens. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 71, 279–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miyazaki, I., Mazabel, C. & Grados, O. (1974) Mature Paragonimus amazonicus first found from a water opossum in Peru. Journal of Parasitology 60, 547–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mojon, M. (1994) Human angiostrongyliasis caused by Angiostrongylus costaricensis. Bulletin d'Academie Nationale de Médecine 178, 625–631.Google ScholarPubMed
Molyneux, M.E., Taylor, T.E., Wirima, J.J. & Borgstein, A. (1989) Clinical features and prognostic indicators in paediatric cerebral malaria: a study of 131 comatose Malawian children. Quaterly Journal of Medicine 71, 441–459.Google ScholarPubMed
Neghina, R., Iacobiciu, I., Neghina, A.M. & Marincu, I. (2011) Trichinellosis, another helminthiasis affecting the central nervous system. Parasitology International 60, 230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newton, C.R., Hien, T.T. & White, N. (2000) Cerebral malaria. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 69, 433–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nikolić, S., Vujosević, M., Sasić, M., Poluga, J., Misić, S., Najdanović, L.J., Dulović, O., Dragojlović, J. & Milosević, B. (1998) Neurologic manifestations in trichinosis. Srpski Arhiv za Celokupno Lekarstvo 126, 209–213.Google ScholarPubMed
Nishimura, K. & Hung, T. (1997) Current views on geographic distribution and modes of infection of neurohelminthic diseases. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 145, 5–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oh, S.J. (1968) Paragonimus meningitis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 6, 419–433.Google ScholarPubMed
Okamura, T., Yamamoto, M., Ohta, K., Matsuoka, T. & Uozumi, T. (1995) Cerebral sparganosis mansoni – case report. Neurologia Medico Chirurgica (Tokyo) 35, 909–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozdol, C., Yildirim, A.E., Daglioglu, E., Divanlioglu, D., Erdem, E. & Belen, D. (2011) Alveolar hydatid cyst mimicking cerebellar metastatic tumor. Surgical Neurology International 2, 13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pagano, M.A., Segura, M.J., Di Lorenzo, G.A., Garau, M.L., Molina, H.A., Cahn, P., Perez, H., Vítolo, F., Grondona, A., Piedimonte, F.C., Giannaula, R., Ramia, R., Miranda, M.A., Sierra, H. & Sica, R.E. (1999) Cerebral tumor-like American trypanosomiasis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Annals of Neurology 45, 403–406.3.0.CO;2-K>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paine, M.F., Wang, M.Z., Generaux, C.N., Boykin, D.W., Wilson, W.D., De Koning, H.P., Olson, C.A., Pohlig, G., Burri, C., Brun, R., Murilla, G.A., Thuita, J.K., Barrett, M.P. & Tidwell, R.R. (2010) Diamidines for human African trypanosomiasis. Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs 11, 876–883.Google ScholarPubMed
Palomares, F., Palencia, G., Ambrosio, J.R., Ortiz, A. & Jung-Cook, H. (2006) Evaluation of the efficacy of albendazole sulphoxide and praziquantel in combination on Taenia crassiceps cysts: in vitro studies. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 57, 482–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patil, H.V., Patil, V.C., Rajmane, V. & Raje, V. (2011) Successful treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis with cotrimoxazole. Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases 32, 44–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potapov, A.A., Goriaĭnov, S.A., Okhlopkov, V.A., Kravchuk, A.D., Zakharova, N.E., Podoprigora, A.E., Kurnosov, A.B., Khit', M.A., Panina, T.N. & Eliseeva, N.M. (2011) Multiple echinococcosis of brain, heart and kidneys. Zhurnal Voprosi Neirokhirurgii Imeni N.N. Burdenko 75, 57–65.Google ScholarPubMed
Prabhakar, M.M., Acharya, A.J., Modi, D.R. & Jadav, B. (2005) Spinal hydatid disease: a case series. Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 28, 426–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pradhan, S., Yadav, R. & Mishra, V.N. (2007) Toxoplasma meningoencephalitis in HIV-seronegative patients: clinical patterns, imaging features and treatment outcome. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 101, 25–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prost, J.O., Romero Villanueva, H., Morikone, A.M., Polo, G. & Bosch, A.M. (2000) Evidence of cerebral involvement in the chronic stage of Chagas disease obtained using the P300 potential and quantified electroencephalography. Arquivos de Neuropsiquiatria 58, 262–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Py, M.O. (2011) Neurologic manifestations of Chagas disease. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 11, 536–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qi, B., Ge, P., Yang, H., Bi, C. & Li, Y. (2011) Spinal intramedullary cysticercosis: a case report and literature review. International Journal of Medical Sciences 8, 420–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodgers, J. (2010) Trypanosomiasis and the brain. Parasitology 137, 1995–2006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roldán, W.H., Cavero, Y.A., Espinoza, Y.A., Jiménez, S. & Gutiérrez, C.A. (2010) Human toxocariasis: a seroepidemiological survey in the Amazonian city of Yurimaguas, Peru. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 52, 37–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruttiner, P. & Hadidi, H. (1991) MRI in cerebral toxocaral disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 54, 361–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawanyawisuth, K., Tiamkao, S., Kanpittaya, J., Dekumyoy, P. & Jitpimolmard, S. (2004) MR imaging findings in cerebrospinal gnathostomiasis. American Journal of Neuroradiology 25, 446–449.Google ScholarPubMed
Sawanyawisuth, K., Chlebicki, M.P., Pratt, E., Kanpittaya, J. & Intapan, P.M. (2009) Sequential imaging studies of cerebral gnathostomiasis with subdural hemorrhage as its complication. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 103, 102–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarlata, F., Giordano, S., Saporito, L., Marasa, L., Li Pani, G., Odierna, A., Scaglione, V., Di Carlo, P. & Romano, A. (2011) Cystic hydatidosis: a rare case of spine localization. Le infezioni in Medicina 19, 39–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Scheid, R., Tina Jentzsch, R. & Schroeter, M.L. (2008) Cognitive dysfunction, urinary retention, and a lesion in the thalamus – beware of possible toxocariasis of the central nervous system. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 110, 1054–1057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Senturk, S., Oguz, K., Soylemezoglu, F. & Inci, S. (2006) Cerebral alveolar echinoccosis mimicking primary brain tumor. American Journal of Neuroradiology 27, 420–422.Google ScholarPubMed
Silva, R.A., Araújo Sde, A., Avellar, I.F., Pittella, J.E., Oliveira, J.T. & Christo, P.P. (2010) Granulomatous amoebic meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent patient. Archives of Neurology 67, 1516–1520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, P., Kochhar, R., Vashishta, R., Khandelwal, N., Prabhakar, S., Mohindra, S. & Singhi, P. (2006) Amebic meningoencephalitis: spectrum of imaging findings. American Journal of Neuroradiology 27, 1217–1221.Google ScholarPubMed
Singhi, P. & Singhi, S. (2009) Neurocysticercosis in children. Indian Journal of Pediatrics 76, 537–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinha, S. & Sharma, B.S. (2012) Intraventricular neurocysticercosis: a review of current status and management issues. British Journal of Neurosurgery 26, 305–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sithinamsuwan, P. & Chairangsaris, P. (2005) Images in clinical medicine. Gnathostomiasis – neuroimaging of larval migration. New England Journal of Medicine 353, 188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takayanagui, O.M. & Odashima, N.S. (2006) Clinical aspects of neurocysticercosis. Parasitology International 55 (Suppl), S111–S115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tanwar, G.S., Khatri, P.C., Sengar, G.S., Kochar, A., Kochar, S.K., Middha, S., Tanwar, G., Khatri, N., Pakalapati, D., Garg, S., Das, A. & Kochar, D.K. (2011) Clinical profiles of 13 children with Plasmodium vivax cerebral malaria. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics 31, 351–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tapie, P., Buguet, A., Tabaraud, F., Bogui, P., Doua, F. & Bert, J. (1996) Electroencephalographic and polygraphic features of 24-hour recordings in sleeping sickness and healthy African subjects. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 13, 339–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tappe, D., Weise, D., Ziegler, U., Müller, A., Müllges, W. & Stich, A. (2008) Brain and lung metastasis of alveolar echinococcosis in a refugee from a hyperendemic area. Journal of Medical Microbiology 57, 1420–1423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teunis, P.F., Koningstein, M., Takumi, K. & van der Giessen, J.W. (2012) Human beings are highly susceptible to low doses of Trichinella spp. Epidemiology and Infection 140, 210–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tunaci, M., Tunaci, A., Engin, G., Ozkorkmaz, B., Ahishali, B. & Rozanes, I. (1999) MRI of cerebral alveolar echinococcosis. Neuroradiology 41, 844–846.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vale, T.C., Marques, D.P., de Sousa-Pereira, S.R. & Lambertucci, J.R. (2011) Schistosoma mansoni encephalomyelitis. Archives of Neurology 68, 1200–1201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vidal, J.E., Sztajnbok, J. & Seguro, A.C. (2003) Eosinophilic meningoencephalitis due to Toxocara canis: case report and review of the literature. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69, 341–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Visvesvara, G.S. (2010) Amebic meningoencephalitides and keratitis: challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 23, 590–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, P., Cooper, N.K. & Brandis, A. (2007) Cerebral sparganosis presenting as grand mal epilepsy. Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps 153, 189–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, J., Zheng, X.Y., Yin, C.H., Qi, H.Y., Li, X.L., Diao, Z.L., Wang, F., Ji, A.P., Feng, M.L. & Guo, Z.Z. (2007) Clinical observation on 25 cases of severe angiostrongyliasis cantonensis. Chinese Journal of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases 25, 333–336.Google ScholarPubMed
Wang, J., Cai, B. & You, C. (2009) Surgical treatment options for cerebral alveolar echinococcosis: experience in six patients. Neurology India 57, 157–161.Google ScholarPubMed
Wang, S.M., Yang, F.F., Huang, Y.X., Shi, G.F. & Weng, X.H. (2009) Clinical analysis of 78 cases of parasitic encephalopathy. Chinese Journal of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases 27, 245–248.Google ScholarPubMed
Wang, X., Huang, H., Dong, Q., Lin, Y., Wang, Z., Li, F., Nawa, Y. & Yoshimura, K. (2002) A clinical study of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis caused by angiostrongyliasis. Chinese Medical Journal (Engl.) 115, 1312–1315.Google ScholarPubMed
Wani, N.A., Kousar, T.L., Gojwari, T., Robbani, I., Singh, M., Ramzan, A., Khan, Q., Kirmani, A. & Wani, A. (2011) Computed tomography findings in cerebral hydatid disease. Turkish Journal of Neurosurgery 21, 347–351.Google ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization, (2008) World malaria report 2008. Geneva, World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Wu, L., Wu, M., Tian, D., Chen, S., Liu, B., Chen, Q., Wang, J., Cai, Q., Ji, B., Wang, L., Zhang, S., Ruan, D., Zhu, X. & Guo, Z. (2012) Clinical and imaging characteristics of cerebral schistosomiasis. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics 62, 289–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed