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Towards global equilibrium: American foundations and Indian modernization, 1950s to 1970s*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 February 2011

Corinna R. Unger
Corinna R. Unger
Affiliation:
Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, Research IV, D-28759 Bremen, Germany E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article studies the activities of American philanthropic foundations in India between the 1950s and 1970s. It discusses why private institutions such as the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation felt committed to responding to problems of hunger and population growth abroad and how they managed to establish themselves as leaders in the development aid arena. Instead of considering the foundations as handmaidens of US national strategic interests shaped by the Cold War, the article argues that they should be understood as highly flexible transnational agents who, in an ambitious combination of philanthropic motives, institutional interests, and trust in the power of science, diagnosed political problems and developed methods to overcome them in order to reduce global inequality.

Keywords

development aidCold WarIndiamodernizationphilanthropy
Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Global History , Volume 6 , Issue 1 , March 2011 , pp. 121 - 142
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

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References

1 See, for example, Ross, Eric B., The Malthus factor: poverty, politics and population in capitalist development, New York: Zed Books, 1998Google Scholar; Edward H. Berman, The ideology of philanthropy: the influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American foreign policy, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1983. More generally Arturo Escobar, Encountering development: the making and unmaking of the Third World, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995.

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4 See, among others, Goswami, Manu, Producing India: from colonial economy to national space, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Benjamin Zachariah, Developing India: an intellectual and social history, c. 1930–50, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005.

5 Rockefeller Archive Center, Rockefeller Foundation, Record Group (hereafter RAC, RF, RG) 3.2, series 900, box 29, folder 156, ‘Special report to the Board of Scientific Directors of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation: human ecology (population)’, 4 November 1949 (900 PRO Pop 1).

6 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, Series 900, box 39, folder 207, ‘Food as a possible field of interest for the Rockefeller Foundation: collected memoranda’, 4 November 1943 (900 PRO Food 1).

7 RAC, RF, RG 3, series 915, box 3, folder 23, Warren Weaver (Rockefeller Foundation), ‘The world food problem, agriculture, and the Rockefeller Foundation’, 21 June 1951.

8 Ford Foundation Archives (hereafter FFA), Report 003306, Ford Foundation, ‘The problems of Asia and the Near East in relation to world peace’, 16 April 1953. See also the Report of the study for the Ford Foundation on policy and program, Detroit: n.p., 1949.

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16 RAC, RF, RG 1.2, series 200, box 45, folder 369, John E. Gordon (Harvard University) to James S. Simmons, Dean, Harvard School of Public Health, 6 October 1953, emphasis added. For the product of Gordon’s study, which was carried out in cooperation with the Indian government and an Indian university, see John B. Wyon and John E. Gordon, The Khanna study: population problems in the rural Punjab, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971. On the Khanna study see Mahmood Mamdani, The myth of population control: family, caste, and class in an Indian village, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972.

17 Amadae, Sonja Michelle, Rationalizing capitalist democracy: the Cold War origins of rational choice liberalism, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003Google Scholar; Hagner, Michael and Hörl, Erich, eds., Die Transformation des Humanen: Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte der Kybernetik, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2008Google Scholar; Jakob Tanner, ‘Komplexität, Kybernetik und Kalter Krieg: “Information” im Systemantagonismus von Markt und Plan’, in Hagner and Hörl, Die Transformation, pp. 377–413; Robin, The making.

18 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 29, folder 159, Dean Rusk (Rockefeller Foundation), ‘Notes on Rockefeller Foundation Program’, 1 December 1953; Prepared for discussion at meeting of Board of Trustees, 1–2 December 1953 (900 Pro-46).

19 David Ekbladh emphasizes the continuity of American modernization ideas between the interwar and the post-war eras in The great American mission: modernization and the construction of an American world order, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010.

20 Michael E. Latham, ‘Modernization’, in Porter and Ross, Cambridge history, vol. 7, pp. 721–34; Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the future: modernization theory in Cold War America, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003; David C. Engerman et al., eds., Staging growth: modernization, development, and the global Cold War, Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003.

21 See Belmonte, Laura A., Selling the American way: U.S. propaganda and the Cold War, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cull, Nicholas J., The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American propaganda and public diplomacy, 1945–1989, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marc Frey, ‘Tools of empire: persuasion and the United States’s modernizing mission in Southeast Asia’, Diplomatic History, 27, 4, 2003, pp. 543–68.

22 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 69, folder 349, Charles B. Fahs (Rockefeller Foundation), ‘Development programs and the RF’, 26 September 1950 (900 PRO Unar 3).

23 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 29, folder 159, John Marshall (Rockefeller Foundation), ‘Relations of the Foundation with governmental and intergovernmental agencies’, 3 November 1950 (900 PRO 51).

24 Kathleen McCarthy, ‘From government to grassroots reform: the Ford Foundation’s population programs in South Asia, 1959–1981’, in Hewa, Soma and Hove, Philo, eds., Philanthropy and cultural context: Western philanthropy in South, East, and Southeast Asia in the 20th century, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1997, pp. 131–4Google Scholar; Corinna R. Unger, ‘Investieren in die Moderne: Amerikanische Stiftungen in der Dritten Welt seit 1945’, in Thomas Adam, Simone Lässig, and Gabriele Lingelbach, eds., Stifter, Spender und Mäzene: USA und Deutschland im historischen Vergleich, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2009, pp. 259–61.

25 FFA, Report 012621, Waldemar A. Nielsen (Ford Foundation), ‘Overseas Development Program’, undated [1955].

26 Staples, Amy L. S., The birth of development: how the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and World Health Organization changed the world, 1945–1965, Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Borgwardt, Elizabeth, A new deal for the world: America’s vision for human rights, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ekbladh, Great American mission.

27 David C. Engerman, Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.

28 See the contributions on twentieth-century planning in Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 34, 3, 2008, especially Anselm Doering-Manteuffel, ‘Ordnung jenseits der politischen Systeme: Planung im 20. Jahrhundert: ein Kommentar’, pp. 398–406; Peter Wagner, ‘Social science and social planning’, in Porter and Ross, Cambridge history, vol. 7, pp. 591–607.

29 See Zachariah, Developing India.

30 Brown, Judith, Nehru: A political life, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003, part 4Google Scholar; Zachariah, Benjamin, Nehru, London: Routledge, 2004, pp. 139–68Google Scholar.

31 Rosen, Western economists, p. 26. Also see David C. Engerman, ‘West meets East: the Center for International Studies and Indian economic development’, in Engerman et al, Staging growth, pp. 199–223.

32 Daniel L. Spencer, ‘India’s planning and foreign aid’, Pacific Affairs, 34, 1, 1961, pp. 30–4.

33 Alison Bashford, ‘Population, geopolitics and international organizations in the mid twentieth century’, Journal of World History, 19, 2008, pp. 327–47.

34 Caldwell, John C. and Caldwell, Pat, Limiting population growth and the Ford Foundation contribution, London: Frances Pinter, 1986, pp. 10–30Google Scholar; John Sharpless, ‘Population science, private foundations, and development aid: the transformation of demographic knowledge in the United States, 1945–1965’, in Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, eds., International development and the social sciences: essays on the history and politics of knowledge, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997, pp. 188–91; Connelly, Matthew, Fatal misconception: the struggle to control world population, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2008, pp. 122–3Google Scholar; Marc Frey, ‘Experten, Stiftungen und Politik: zur Genese des globalen Diskurses über Bevölkerung seit 1945’, Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History, 4, 1–2, 2007, <http://www.zeithistorische-forschungen.de/16126041-Frey-2–2007> (consulted 7 December 2010), pp. 142–3.

35 Nilanjana Chatterjee and Nancy E. Riley, ‘Planning an Indian modernity: the gendered politics of fertility control’, Signs, 26, 3, 2001, p. 832.

36 Caldwell and Caldwell, Limiting population growth, pp. 26–9.

37 FFA, Report 002832, Ford Foundation, ‘Program for Asia and the Near East’, 1959.

38 Weaver, ‘World food problem’.

39 McMahon, Robert J., The Cold War on the periphery: The United States, India, and Pakistan, New York: Columbia University Press, 1994Google Scholar; Perkins, John H., Geopolitics and the Green Revolution: Wheat, genes, and the Cold War, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, ch. 7Google Scholar; Kristin L. Ahlberg, ‘‘Machiavelli with a heart’: The Johnson administration’s Food for Peace program in India, 1965–1966’, Diplomatic History 31, 4, 2007, pp. 665–701, p. 673; Christ Barrett, Food aid after fifty years: Recasting its role, New York: Routledge, 2005, pp. 18–25.

40 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 39, folder 207, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘Toward the conquest of hunger’, excerpt from 12/63 report to Trustees, December 1963 (900 PRO Food 1 a).

41 Ibid.

42 Weaver, ‘World food problem’.

43 John H. Perkins calls the alleged need to employ modern technology to solve the food problem as the root of political instability in the ‘Third World’ ‘population-national security theory’ (PNST): Perkins, Geopolitics, pp. 119–20.

44 FFA, Report 005611, Waldemar A. Nielsen (Ford Foundation), interview with Mr. Allen W. Dulles, Director, Central Intelligence Agency, 18 April 1955.

45 Subir Sinha, ‘Lineages of the developmentalist state: transnationality and village India, 1900–1965’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50, 1, 2008, pp. 57–90.

46 Rosen, Western economists, pp. 11–15; Howard B. Schaffer, Chester Bowles: New Dealer in the Cold War, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993, pp. 64 and 67.

47 Francine R. Frankel, ‘Ideology and politics in economic planning: the problem of Indian agricultural development strategy’, World Politics, 19, 4, 1967, pp. 630–41.

48 Sinha, ‘Lineages’, pp. 74–6.

49 Ford Foundation, Agricultural Production Team, and Indian Ministry of Food and Agriculture, India’s food crisis and steps to meet it, Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 1959.

50 FFA, reel 3372, grant 60–83, section 4, Douglas Ensminger, Draft docket item, December 1959. On Ensminger, see Rosen, Western economists, pp. 13, 17, 53, 78.

51 FFA, Report 009453, George F. Gant to David E. Bell (both Ford Foundation), ‘The Foundation and IADP’, 29 August 1966; FFA, Report 003578, A. A. Johnson (Ford Foundation), ‘The Intensive Agricultural District Program (IADP): An Evaluation’, July 1975. See also Lanier, Günther, Die Entwicklungspolitik Indiens von 1947 bis 1967: die Zeit der Illusionen, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1991, pp. 210–29Google Scholar; Rosen, Western economists, pp. 76–83; Perkins, Geopolitics, pp. 182–3 and 240–1.

52 RAC, RF, RG 1.2, series 464, box 1, folder 4, Secretary, Food & Agriculture, Government of India, to Dr. Weaver, Rockefeller Foundation, 9 January 1956. For an overview of the Rockefeller Foundation’s agricultural programmes, see Nancy Adgent, ‘“Their bellies are being satisfied”: agriculture and Rockefeller philanthropy’, Rockefeller Archive Center Newsletter, 2008, pp. 6–8.

53 RAC, RF, RG 1.2, series 464, box 1, folder 1, Rockefeller Foundation, Minutes, 6–7 December 1960.

54 RAC, RF, RG 6.7, series II, box 27, folder 153, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (position paper for IAP review)’, for discussion only, undated [1970].

55 RAC, RF, RG 3, series 915, box 3, folder 23, Warren Weaver and J. George Harrar (both Rockefeller Foundation), ‘Research on rice’, 21 October 1954, Appendix I to Minutes of Board Meeting, 30 November–1 December 1954.

56 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 39, folder 207, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘Toward the conquest of hunger’, excerpt from 12/63 report to Trustees, December 1963 (900 PRO Food 1 a). See also RAC, RF, RG 6.7, series I, box 6, folder 36, Guy B. Baird (Rockefeller Foundation), ‘The relationship of conquest of hunger to university development in India’ (draft), 11 December 1967. On the IRRI, see Nick Cullather, ‘Miracles of modernization: the Green Revolution and the apotheosis of technology’, Diplomatic History, 28, 2, 2004, pp. 227–54; Margreet van der Burg and Harro Matt, eds., International rice research and development, New York: CABI, forthcoming 2011.

57 Mary Ann Quinn, ‘RF grants in the Philippines, 1958–1990’, Rockefeller Archive Center Newsletter, 2006, p. 11. On the role of IR-8 in the United States’ Vietnam War strategy, see Cullather, ‘Miracles’, pp. 247–53.

58 RAC, RF, RG 6.7, series II, box 27, folder 153, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘Rice project assessment’, undated [1970]; folder 154, Johnson E. Douglas to Dr. Knowles (both Rockefeller Foundation), 25 September 1972; Cullather, ‘Miracles’.

59 Frankel, Francine R., India’s political economy: the gradual revolution, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978, pp. 237–40 and 246–56Google Scholar; Perkins, Geopolitics, pp. 180 and 238–9.

60 Quoted in Nick Cullather, ‘Parable of seeds: the Green Revolution in the modernizing imagination’, in Marc Frey, Ronald W. Pruessen, and Tan Tai Yong, eds., The transformation of Southeast Asia: international perspectives on decolonization, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2003, p. 265.

61 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 39, folder 207, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘Toward the conquest of hunger, excerpt from 12/63 report to Trustees, December 1963 (900 PRO Food 1 a).

62 Frankel, Francine R., India’s Green Revolution: economic gains and political costs, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971, pp. 7–8Google Scholar; A. K. Chakravarti, ‘Green Revolution in India’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 63, 3, 1973, pp. 319–30; Pierre Spitz, ‘The Green Revolution re-examined in India’, in Bernhard Glaeser, ed., The Green Revolution re-visited: critique and alternatives, London: Allen & Unwin, 1987, pp. 56–75.

63 Carroll P. Streeter, A partnership to improve food production in India: a special report from the Rockefeller Foundation, New York: The Rockefeller Foundation, 1969 (quotation from p. 3). For a contemporary evaluation, see Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University, Changing agriculture and rural life in a region of northern India: a study of progressive farmers in Northwestern Uttar Pradesh during 1967/8, vol. 1, Patnagar: U. P. Agricultural University, 1969, esp. pp. 209–10.

64 Sally Wyatt, ‘Technological determinism is dead; long live technological determinism’, in Edward J. Hackett et al., eds., The handbook of science and technology studies, 3rd edition, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008, p. 172.

65 Akhil Gupta, Postcolonial developments: agriculture in the making of modern India, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003 (1998), pp. 9, 196–7, 203.

66 Vandana Shiva, The violence of the Green Revolution: ecological degradation and political conflict in Punjab, Dehra Dun: Research Foundation for Science and Ecology, 1989.

67 Wolf Ladejinsky, ‘How green is the Indian Green Revolution?’, Economic and Political Weekly, 8, 52, 1973, pp. A133–5, A137–9, A141–4.

68 For an overview on Indian population debates and politics, see Mohan Rao, From population control to reproductive health: Malthusian arithmetic, New Delhi and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004.

69 Chatterjee and Riley, ‘Planning’, pp. 818–22; Caldwell and Caldwell, Limiting population growth, pp. 37–43.

70 Rosanna Ledbetter, ‘Thirty years of family planning in India’, Asian Survey, 24, 7, 1984, pp. 737–8; Annika Berg, ‘A suitable country: the relationship between Sweden’s interwar population policy and family planning in post-independence India’, Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 33, 3, 2010, pp. 297–320.

71 Ledbetter, ‘Thirty years’, pp. 739–40.

72 Chatterjee and Riley, ‘Planning’, p. 824. See also Matthew Connelly, ‘Population control in India: prologue to the Emergency period’, Population and Development Review, 32, 4, 2006, pp. 646, 651–2.

73 Sharpless, ‘Population science’; Connelly, Fatal misconception; Frey, ‘Experten’; FFA, Reports 016626, Radhika Ramasubban and Bhanwar Singh Rishyasringa, Sexuality and reproductive rights: fifty years of the Ford Foundation in India, New Delhi: The Ford Foundation, 2002, pp. 12–14.

74 FFA, Report 003673, Edward M. Humberger (Ford Foundation), ‘Population program management: the Ford Foundation in India, 1951–1970’, 22 April 1970.

75 FFA, Report 003685, Reuben Hill (Ford Foundation), ‘Comments on programs in India’, 18 October 1965. See also see Ramasubban and Rishyasringa, Sexuality, pp. 15–16.

76 Ledbetter, ‘Thirty years’, pp. 741–3; Connelly, Fatal misconception, pp. 216–27.

77 Sunniva Engh, ‘From northern feminists to southern women: Scandinavian population aid to India’, in Fraser, Monika Pohle and Pharo, Helge, eds., The aid rush: aid regimes in northern Europe during the Cold War, Oslo: Oslo Academic Press, 2008, pp. 253–84Google Scholar.

78 Connelly, Fatal misconception, pp. 318–25.

79 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 57, folder 311, Rockefeller Foundation, Board of Trustees meeting minutes, 6–7 December 1960, emphasis added.

80 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 57, folder 311, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘The Population Program of the Rockefeller Foundation’, excerpt from report to Trustees on five principal program areas, December 1964.

81 Hill, ‘Comments on programs’.

82 FFA, reel 5352, grant 690–0721, section 1, Ford Foundation, David E. Bell to McGeorge Bundy, Request for grant action, 3 September 1969.

83 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 57, folder 311, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘Two-page summary’ of the Population Program, 25 October 1972.

84 McCarthy, ‘From government’, pp. 138–41; Alice O’Connor, ‘The Ford Foundation and philanthropic activism in the 1960s’, in Lagemann, Ellen Condliffe, ed., Philanthropic foundations: new scholarship, new possibilities, Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 1999, p. 170Google Scholar.

85 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 39, folder 207, Rockefeller Foundation, ‘The Rockefeller Foundation Conquest of hunger program’, December 1974 (900 PRO Food 3).

86 RAC, RF, RG 3.2, series 900, box 38, folder 203, BW (Rockefeller Foundation), XXV, ‘Anniversary of INCAP’, XIV, International Biological Symposium in Latin America on Nutrition and Agricultural and Economic Development in the Tropics, Guatemala, 2–6 December 1974.

87 Daniel R. Maul, ‘“Help them move the ILO way”: The International Labour Organization and the modernization discourse in the era of decolonization and the Cold War’, Diplomatic History, 33, 3, 2009, p. 399.

88 Doering-Manteuffel, ‘Ordnung jenseits der politischen Systeme’, pp. 399–402.

89 Rockefeller Foundation, Rice Project Assessment, not dated [1970]. RAC, RF, RG 6.7, Series II, Box 27, Folder 153.