Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T12:13:25.111Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Scholarly identities in war and peace: the Paris Peace Conference and the mobilization of intellect*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 October 2016

Tomás Irish
Tomás Irish*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Swansea University, Wales, UK E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article analyses international scholarship of the early twentieth century by focusing on scholarly networks and the uncomfortable interplay between their claims to universalism and the realities of an international war with global dimensions. Academics, books, and ideas had traversed the world with relative ease and regularity from the mid nineteenth century. The consequences were the creation of a hierarchical and Euro-American dominated ‘academic world’ where mobility and the transnational transmission of knowledge were key features. The rupture of the First World War tested the durability of these connections but the Paris Peace Conference showed that scholarly connections – through shared disciplinary interests, alumni groupings, or mutual acquaintance – were not only durable but sometimes crucial to the recasting of the world envisaged by the peacemakers. While the scholars present at the Paris Peace Conference were there as representatives of their respective nations, they also demonstrated strong allegiance to disciplines and institutions.

Keywords

educationnetworkspeacetransnationalwar
Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Global History , Volume 11 , Issue 3 , November 2016 , pp. 365 - 386
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

The author would like to thank Simone M. Müller and Heather Ellis for their comments on earlier drafts of this article, as well as for organizing the Actor Networks between Global Markets and the Nation conference in Berlin in 2013, from which the article emerged. The author is also grateful to the editors of the Journal of Global History for their comments on earlier drafts, as well as to the two anonymous JGH reviewers.

References

1 Winter, Jay, Dreams of peace and freedom: utopian moments in the twentieth century, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006, pp. 48–49 Google Scholar.

2 Latour, Bruno, Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network-theory, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, pp. 71–72 Google Scholar.

3 Pietsch, Tamson, Empire of scholars: universities, networks and the British academic world, 1850–1939, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013, pp. 39–44 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, has shown how the exchange and publication of books became a crucial marker of institutional and international prestige for the settler universities of the British Empire. See also Elizabeth Kuebler-Wolf, ‘“Born in America, in Europe bred, in Africa travell’d and in Asia wed:” Elihu Yale, material culture, and actor networks from the seventeenth century to the twenty-first’, in this issue, pp. 000–000.

4 Latour, Bruno, ‘On actor-network theory: a few clarifications plus more than a few complications’, http://www.bruno-latour.fr/sites/default/files/P-67%20ACTOR-NETWORK.pdf (consulted 22 January 2016), p. 2 Google Scholar.

5 Marwick, Arthur, Britain in the century of total war: war, peace and social change, 1900–1967, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 Google Scholar; Horne, John, ‘Introduction: mobilizing for “total” war’, in John Horne, ed., State, society and mobilization in Europe during the First World War, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 1–17 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chickering, Roger and Förster, Stig, eds., Great War, total war: combat and mobilization on the Western Front, 1914–1918, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Fisher, H. A. L., ‘Preface’, in British universities and the war: a record and its meaning, New York and Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1917, p. xiiiGoogle Scholar.

7 Irish, Tomás, The university at war 1914–25: Britain, France, and the United States, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, pp. 15–60 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 MacMillan, Margaret, Peacemakers: six months that changed the world, London: J. Murray, 2001 Google Scholar; Manela, Erez, The Wilsonian moment: self-determination and the international origins of anticolonial nationalism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007 Google Scholar; Steiner, Zara, The lights that failed: European international history, 1919–1933, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goldberg, George, The peace to end peace: the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, London: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1970 Google Scholar; Marks, Sally, Innocent abroad: Belgium at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1981 Google Scholar; Gelfand, Laurence, The Inquiry: American preparations for peace, 1917–1919, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963 Google Scholar; Sharp, Alan, The Versailles settlement: peacemaking after the First World War, 1919–1923, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Keylor, William R., The legacy of the Great War: peacemaking, 1919, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1998 Google Scholar; Mulligan, William, The Great War for peace, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014 Google Scholar.

9 Johnson, Gaynor, Lord Robert Cecil: politician and internationalist, Farnham: Ashgate, 2013 Google Scholar; Cooper, John Milton, Jr, Woodrow Wilson: a biography, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009 Google Scholar; Skidelsky, Robert, John Maynard Keynes: a biography. Vol. 1: hopes betrayed 1883–1920, London: Macmillan, 1983 Google Scholar; Clements, Jonathan, Wellington Koo, China, London: Haus, 2008 Google Scholar; Sharp, Alan, David Lloyd George, London: Haus, 2008 Google Scholar; Hattersley, Roy, David Lloyd George: the great outsider, London: Little, Brown, 2012 Google Scholar; Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste, Clemenceau, Paris: Fayard, 1988 Google Scholar; Watson, David Robin, Georges Clemenceau: a political biography, London: Methuen, 1974 Google Scholar.

10 Keynes, John Maynard, The economic consequences of the peace, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920 Google Scholar; Lansing, Robert, The peace negotiations: a personal narrative, Boston, MA, and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1921 Google Scholar; George, David Lloyd, War Memoirs, vol II, London: Nicholson and Watson, 1933 Google Scholar; Headlam-Morley, James, A memoir of the Paris Peace Conference 1919, London: Methuen, 1972 Google Scholar; Shotwell, James T., At the Paris Peace Conference, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1937 Google Scholar; Link, Arthur S., ed., The papers of Woodrow Wilson. Vol. 69: 1918–1924, contents and index, volumes 53–68, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994 Google Scholar; Nicolson, Harold, Peacemaking 1919, New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1965 Google Scholar; Tardieu, André, The truth about the treaty, Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs Merrill, 1921 Google Scholar.

11 Prott, Volker, ‘Tying up the loose ends of national self-determination: British, French, and American experts in peace planning, 1917–1919’, Historical Journal, 57, 3, 2014, pp. 727–750 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hidalgo-Weber, Olga, ‘Social and political networks and the creation of the ILO: the role of British actors’, in Sandrine Kott and Joelle Droux, eds., Globalizing social rights: the International Labour Organization and beyond, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 17–31 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Winter, Dreams of peace and freedom, pp. 48–74.

12 Rosenberg, Emily, ‘Transnational currents in a shrinking world’, in Emily Rosenberg, ed., A world connecting, 1870–1945, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2012, pp. 823–831 Google Scholar.

13 Pietsch, Empire of scholars, pp. 7–9.

14 Balfour, A. J., ‘Education continued through life’, in International University reading course, London: International University Society, n.d., p. 15 Google Scholar.

15 Records of the tercentenary festival of the University of Dublin held 5th to 8th July, 1892, Dublin: Hodges Figges, 1894.

16 Anderson, Robert D., ‘University centenary ceremonies in Scotland 1884–1911’, in Pieter Dhondt, ed., Scientific and learned cultures and their institutions, Leiden: Brill, 2011, pp. 241–264 Google Scholar.

17 Liebst, Michelle, ‘African workers and the Universities Mission to Central Africa in Zanzibar, 1864–1900’, Journal of Eastern African Studies, 8, 3, 2014, pp. 366–381 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Ellis, Heather, ‘Knowledge, character and professionalisation in nineteenth-century British science’, History of Education, 43, 6, 2014, pp. 787–788 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Report of the sixtieth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science: held at Leeds in September 1890, London: J. Murray, 1891, pp. 111–14.

19 Schroder-Gudehus, Brigitte, ‘Division of labour and the common good: the International Association of Academies, 1899–1914’, in Carl Gustaf Bernhard, Elizabeth Crawford, and Per Sörborn, eds., Science, technology and society in the time of Alfred Nobel, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1982, pp. 7–8 Google Scholar.

20 Erdmann, Karl Dietrich, Toward a global community of historians, New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 2005 Google Scholar.

21 Rodgers, Daniel T., Atlantic crossings: social politics in a progressive age, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998, pp. 76–89 Google Scholar.

22 Friedman, Robert Marc, The politics of excellence: behind the Nobel Prize in science, New York: Times Books, 2001 Google Scholar.

23 Osterhammel, Jurgen, The transformation of the world: a global history of the nineteenth century, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014, p. 798 Google Scholar.

24 Ibid., p. 802.

25 al-Khaizaru, Huda Yoshida, ‘The emergence of private universities and new social formations in Meiji Japan, 1868–1912’, History of Education, 40, 2, 2011, pp. 158–159 Google Scholar.

26 Dittrich, Klaus, ‘The beginnings of modern education in Korea’, Paedagogica Historica, 50, 3, 2014, pp. 265–284 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 Irish, Tomás, ‘From international to inter-allied: transatlantic university relations in the era of the First World War, 1905–1920’, Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 13, 4 2015, p. 315 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Hanotaux, Gabriel, Le comité ‘France–Amerique’: son activité de 1909 à 1920, Paris: Comité France–Amérique, 1920 Google Scholar.

29 Kramer, Paul, ‘Is the world our campus? International students and U.S. global power in the long twentieth century’, Diplomatic History, 33, 5, 2009, pp. 783–784 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Craft, Stephen G., V.K. Wellington Koo and the emergence of modern China, Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2004, pp. 12–13 Google Scholar. See also Steffen Rimner, ‘Chinese abolitionism: the Chinese Educational Mission in Connecticut, Cuba and Peru’, in this issue, pp. 000–000.

31 ‘Graduates of our colleges in high posts in China: American educated Chinese are occupying important places in the awakened kingdom of the Far East and their influence is great’, New York Times, 16 October 1910, p. SM12.

32 Kramer, ‘Is the world our campus?’, pp. 784–86; Pietsch, Tamson, ‘Many Rhodes: travelling scholarships and imperial citizenship in the British academic world’, History of Education, 40, 6, 2011, p. 728 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Archives Nationales (henceforth AN), AJ/16/4752, Université de Paris, minute book of the Faculty of Letters.

33 Mazower, Mark, ‘An international civilization? Empire, internationalism and the crisis of the mid-twentieth century’, International Affairs, 82, 3, 2006, pp. 554–558 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Latour, Reassembling the social, pp. 63–86.

35 Krumeich, Gerd, ‘Le blocus maritime et la guerre sous-marine’, in John Horne, ed., Vers la guerre totale, Paris: Tallandier, 2010, pp. 175–190 Google Scholar.

36 ‘Scholars protest against war with Germany’, The Times, 1 August 1914, p. 6.

37 Rempel, Richard A. et al., eds., The collected papers of Bertrand Russell, volume 13: prophecy and dissent, 1914–16, London: Unwin Hyman, 1988, pp. 481–482 Google Scholar.

38 Gregory, Adrian, The last Great War: British society and the First World War, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 24–25 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wallace, Stuart, War and the image of Germany: British academics 1914–1918, Edinburgh: John Donald, 1988, pp. 24–27 Google Scholar.

39 Le Figaro, 9 August 1914, p. 3.

40 Columbia University Rare Books and Manuscripts Library (henceforth CURBML), Nicholas Murray Butler papers (henceforth NMB), arranged correspondence, 56, Nicholas Murray Butler to James Bryce, 26 August 1914.

41 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: year book for 1912, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1913, pp. ix–xvi; Irish, Tomás, ‘Peace through history? The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace’s inquiry into European schoolbooks, 1921–1924’, History of Education, 45, 1, 2016, p. 44 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 Kramer, Alan, Dynamic of destruction: culture and mass killing in the First World War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 6–19 Google Scholar.

43 Cited in Church, Samuel Harden, The American verdict on the war: reply to the appeal to the civilized world by the 93 German professors, Baltimore, MD: Norman, Remington Co., 1915, pp. 26–28 Google Scholar.

44 Prochasson, Christophe, 1914–1918: retours d’expériences, Paris: Tallandier, 2008, pp. 282–283 Google Scholar; Le Figaro, 1 December 1914, p. 3.

45 ‘Académie de Medicine’, Le Figaro, 20 January 1915, p. 3.

46 von Strandmann, Hartmut Pogge, ‘The role of British and German historians in mobilizing public opinion in 1914’, in Benedikt Stuchtey and Peter Wende, eds., British and German historiography 1750–1950: traditions, perceptions, and transfers, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 335–372 Google Scholar.

47 Sanders, M. L., ‘Wellington House and British propaganda during the First World War’, Historical Journal, 18, 1, 1975, p. 144 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 Irish, University at war, pp. 39–60.

49 Lepick, Olivier, La grande guerre chimique 1914–1918, Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1998 Google Scholar; Haber, L. F., The poisonous cloud: chemical warfare in the First World War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986 Google Scholar.

50 AN, F17/13495, Emile Borel to Paul Painlevé, 3 March 1916.

51 Prochasson, 14–18, p. 295.

52 Hanotaux, Le comité ‘France–Amérique’.

53 Prott, ‘Tying up the loose ends’.

54 Smith, Neil, American empire: Roosevelt’s geographer and the prelude to globalization, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003, p. 126 Google Scholar; Gelfand, The Inquiry, pp. 340–2, Appendix II: Inquiry personnel as of 30 October 1918, classified by function.

55 CURBML, Shotwell Papers, box 12, report of progress, 6 December 1917.

56 Seymour, Charles, Letters from the Paris Peace Conference, ed. Harold B. Whiteman, Jr, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1965, pp. xxiii–xxivGoogle Scholar.

57 CURBML, Shotwell Papers, box 12, report of progress, 6 December 1917; Rietzler, Katharina, ‘The War as history: writing the economic and social history of the First World War’, Diplomatic History, 38, 4, 2014, pp. 828–830 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Bartkus, Viva Ona and Davis, James H., ‘Introduction: the yet undiscovered value of social capital’, in Viva Ona Bartkus and James H. Davis, eds., Social capital: reaching out, reaching in, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2010, p. 4 Google Scholar.

59 Cooper, Milton, Woodrow Wilson, p. 462 Google Scholar.

60 Shotwell, Paris Peace Conference, p. 29.

61 Winter, Dreams of peace and freedom, pp. 53–4.

62 Lowczyk, Olivier, La Fabrique de la paix: du Comité d’études à la Conférence de la Paix, l’élaboration par la France des traités de la Première Guerre mondiale, Paris: Economica, 1997, p. 73 Google Scholar.

63 Tardieu, André, La Paix, Paris: Payot, 1921, p. 95 Google Scholar; Heffernan, Michael, The meaning of Europe: geography and geopolitics, London: Arnold 1998, p. 95 Google Scholar; Bonnemaison, Joël, Culture and space: conceiving a new cultural geography, London: I.B. Tauris, 2005, pp. 22–27 Google Scholar.

64 Lowcyzk, La Fabrique de la paix, pp. 73–4.

65 Goldstein, Erik, ‘Historians outside the academy: G.W. Prothero and the experience of the Foreign Office Historical Section, 1917–20’, Historical Research, 63, 151, 1990, pp. 195–196 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 Prothero, G. W., ‘Preface’, in Peace handbooks issued by the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, Vol. I: Austria-Hungary, part 1, London: H.M. Stationary Office, 1919, p. iiiGoogle Scholar.

67 Goldstein, Erik, Winning the peace: British diplomatic strategy, peace planning, and the Paris Peace Conference, 1916–1920, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991, pp. 35–47 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goldstein, ‘Historians outside the academy’, pp. 203–4.

68 Goldstein, ‘Historians outside the academy’, p. 207.

69 Burkman, Thomas, Japan and the League of Nations: empire and world order, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008), p. 25 Google Scholar.

70 Ibid., p. 4.

71 Mishra, Pankaj, From the ruins of empire: the revolt against the West and the remaking of Asia, London: Penguin, 2013, p. 205 Google Scholar.

72 Craft, V.K. Wellington Koo, p. 28.

73 Shotwell, Paris Peace Conference, p. 161, 3 February 1919.

74 Manela, Wilsonian moment, pp. 113–15.

75 Clements, Wellington Koo, pp. 57–70; MacMillan, Peacemakers, pp. 340–6.

76 British Library, Add MS 49740, fol. 127, Cecil Spring-Rice to Arthur Balfour, 5 July 1917.

77 CURBML, NMB, arranged correspondence, box 233, Butler to Louis Liard, 4 December 1916.

78 Lowczyk, La Fabrique de la paix, pp. 109–11.

79 Prott, ‘Tying up the loose ends’, p. 743.

80 ‘Jurists of world united’, Advocate of Peace, 81, 3, 1919, p. 68.

81 Shotwell, Paris Peace Conference, Appendix IX.

82 Tardieu, La Paix, p. 108.

83 Link, Arthur S. ed., The deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919): notes of the official interpreter, Paul Mantoux, volume I, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992, p. ixGoogle Scholar.

84 Lentin, Antony, Lloyd George and the lost peace: from Versailles to Hitler, 1919–1940, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001, p. 74 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

85 Seymour, Letters, p. 108.

86 Shotwell, Paris Peace Conference, p. 89, 16 December 1918.

87 Ibid., p. 118, 14 January 1919.

88 Prott, ‘Tying up the loose ends’, p. 738; Smith, American empire, p. 145.

89 Crampton, Jeremy W., ‘The cartographic calculation of space: race mapping and the Balkans at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919’, Social & Cultural Geography, 7, 5, 2006, pp. 741–743 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 Seymour, Letters, p. 103, letter of 12 January 1919.

91 Nicolson, Peacemaking 1919, p. 284.

92 Shotwell, Paris Peace Conference, p. 92, 21 December 1918.

93 Ibid., p. 161, 2 February 1919.

94 ‘An educational entente’, Advocate of Peace, 81, 1, 1919, pp. 5–6.

95 ‘The Brussels meeting of the International Research Council’, Science, n.s. 50, 1288, 1919, p. 226.

96 Kevles, Daniel J., The physicists: the history of a scientific community in modern America, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995, p. 145 Google Scholar.

97 Cock, A. G., ‘Chauvinism and internationalism in science: the International Research Council, 1919–1926’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 37, 2, 1983, pp. 249–288 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

98 Laqua, Daniel, ‘Transnational intellectual cooperation, the League of Nations, and the problem of order’, Journal of Global History, 6, 2, 2011, p. 228 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

99 Dumont, Juliette and Fléchet, Anaïs, ‘Brazilian cultural diplomacy in the twentieth century’, Revista Brasileira de História, 34, 67, 2014, p. 3 Google Scholar.

100 Davenport-Hines, Richard, Universal man: the seven lives of John Maynard Keynes, London: Basic Books, 2015, pp. 95–100 Google Scholar.

101 McGuinness, Brian and von Wright, G. H., eds., Ludwig Wittgenstein: Cambridge letters: correspondence with Russell, Keynes, Moore, Ramsey and Sraffa, Oxford: Blackwell, 1996, pp. 114–120 Google Scholar.

102 Macmillan, Peacemakers, p. 120.

103 Seymour, Letters, pp. 203–4, letter of 16 April 1919.

104 Ibid., pp. 99 and 240, letters of 9 January and 21 May 1919.

105 Ibid., pp. 249–50, letter of 31 May 1919.

106 Seton-Watson, Hugh and Seton-Watson, Christopher, The making of a new Europe: R.W. Seton-Watson and the last years of Austria-Hungary, London: Methuen, 1981, pp. 336–339 Google Scholar.

107 Ibid., p. 353.

108 Fair, John D., ‘The peacemaking exploits of Harold Temperley in the Balkans, 1918–1921’, Slavonic and East European Review, 67, 1, 1989, pp. 71–79 Google Scholar.

109 Crampton, Jeremy W., ‘The cartographic calculation of space: race mapping and the Balkans at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919’, Social and Cultural Geography, 7, 5, 2006, p. 741 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

110 Quoted in Craft, V.K. Wellington Koo, p. 17.

111 CURBML, NMB, arranged correspondence, box 210, Douglas Johnson to Butler, 17 April 1919.

112 Seymour, Letters, p. 250.

113 Culcasi, Karen, ‘Disordered ordering: mapping the division of the Ottoman empire’, Cartographica, 49, 1, 2014, pp. 5–6 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

114 Mazower, Mark, Governing the world: the history of an idea, London: Allen Lane, 2012, pp. 165–173 Google Scholar.

115 CURBML, NMB, arranged correspondence, box 210, Johnson to Butler, 17 April 1919.

116 Shotwell, Paris Peace Conference, p. 308, 4 May 1919.

117 CURBML, NMB, arranged correspondence, box 210, Johnson to Butler, 17 April 1919.

118 Seymour, Letters, p. 162, letter of 15 February 1919.

119 Lentin, Lloyd George and the lost peace, pp. 68–85.

120 Markwell, Donald, John Maynard Keynes and international relations: economic paths to war and peace, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 48 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

121 Lentin, Lloyd George and the lost peace, p. 68.

122 Seton-Watson and Seton-Watson, Making of a new Europe, p. 343.

123 Nielson, Jonathan M., ‘The scholar as diplomat: American historians at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919’, International History Review, 14, 2, 1992, p. 249 Google Scholar.

124 Lentin, Lloyd George and the lost peace, p. 72.

125 Rietzler, Katharina, ‘The War as history’, pp. 826–839 Google Scholar.

126 Shotwell, James, Economic and social history of the world war: outline of plan, European series, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1924, pp. 14–23 Google Scholar.

127 Headlam-Morley, Memoir of the Paris Peace Conference 1919, p. 38.

128 Lavin, Deborah, From empire to international Commonwealth: a biography of Lionel Curtis, Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 165–168 Google Scholar.

129 Temperley, H. W. V., A history of the peace conference, volume 1, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1920, p. v Google Scholar.

130 Ibid., p. iv.