1 Corneille, Major John, Journal of my service in India, ed. with an introduction by Michael Edwardes, London: The Folio Society, 1966, pp. 8, 39Google Scholar; Sandes, Lieutenant-Colonel E. W. C., The military engineer in India, Eastbourne: The Naval & Military Press, 1997, (first published 1933), p. 25Google Scholar.

2 Black, Jeremy, Britain as a military power: 1688–1815, London: UCL Press Ltd., 1999, p. viiCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Hew Strachan, ‘The British way in warfare’, in Chandler, David and Beckett, Ian, eds., The Oxford illustrated history of the British army, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994, p. 424Google Scholar.

4 William R. Thompson, ‘The military superiority thesis and the ascendancy of western Eurasia in the world system’, Journal of World History, 10, 1, 1999, pp. 143–78.

5 See, for example, Bayly, C.A., Indian society and the making of the British empire, New Cambridge History of India II.I, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marshall, P. J., The making and unmaking of empires: Britain, India, and America c. 1750–1783, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006Google Scholar.

6 Judd, Denis, The lion and the tiger: the rise and fall of the British raj, 1600–1947, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 1–69Google Scholar.

7 I. Bruce Watson, ‘Fortifications and the “idea” of force in early English East India Company’s relations with India’, Past & Present, no. 88, August 1980, pp. 70–87.

8 Parker, Geoffrey, The military revolution: military innovation and the rise of the West, 1500–1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988Google Scholar.

9 Pradeep P. Barua, ‘Military developments in India: 1750–1850’, Journal of Military History, 58, 4, 1994, pp. 599–616; idem, The state at war in South Asia, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2005, pp. 67–123; Lorge, Peter A., The Asian military revolution: from gunpowder to the bomb, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 133–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Clifford J. Rogers, ‘The military revolution in history and historiography’, and ‘The military revolutions of the Hundred Years War’, in Rogers, Clifford J., ed., The military revolution debate: readings on the military transformation of early modern Europe, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995, pp. 1–10, 55–93Google Scholar. Knox, MacGregor and Murray, Williamson, eds., The dynamics of military revolution: 1300–2050, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003Google Scholar.

11 Jos Gommans, ‘Warhorse and gunpowder in India, c. 1000–1850’, in Black, Jeremy, ed., War in the early modern world: 1450–1815, London and New York: Routledge, 2004, pp. 119–20Google Scholar.

12 Jos Gommans, ‘Indian warfare and Afghan innovation during the eighteenth century’, Studies in History, new series, 11, 2, 1995, pp. 261–80.

13 G.B. Malleson, The decisive battles of India, Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers, 1986 (first published 1883); William Irvine, The army of the Indian moghuls: its organization and administration, New Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1994 (first published 1903).

14 Hanson, Victor Davis, Warfare and agriculture in classical Greece, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999Google Scholar; idem, Carnage and culture: landmark battles in the rise of Western power, New York: Doubleday, 2001.

15 C.A. Bayly, ‘The British military–fiscal state and indigenous resistance: India 1750–1820’, in Bayly, , ed.,Origins of nationality in South Asia: patriotism and ethical government in the making of modern India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 238–75Google Scholar.

16 Jeffrey Greenhut, ‘Armies of India from the Aryans to the Marathas’, Journal of the United Service Institution of India, 106, 442, 1976, pp. 30–41; G. J. Bryant, ‘Asymmetric warfare: the British experience in eighteenth-century India’, Journal of Military History, 68, 3, 2004, pp. 431–69.

17 Whether those institutions emerged from a ‘military revolution’ is not at issue here. Jeremy Black, in ‘A military revolution? A 1660–1792 perspective’, in Rogers, Military revolution debate, pp. 95–114, challenges the concept of a military revolution in early modern Europe.

18 Bayly, Indian society, pp. 7–44.

19 Ghulam Hussain Khan, Riyazu-s-Salatin, tr. Abdus Salam, New Delhi: Idarah-Adabiyat-i-Delli, 1975 (first published 1903), p. 374; Verma, D. C., Plassey to Buxar: a military study, New Delhi: K.B. Publications, 1976, pp. 50–1Google Scholar.

20 Singh, Ganda, Ahmad Shah Durrani: father of modern Afghanistan, Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1959, pp. 136–265Google Scholar; Gordon, Stewart, The Marathas: 1600–1818, New Cambridge History of India II.4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 114–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 Lenman, Bruce, Britain’s colonial wars: 1688–1783, Harlow, Essex: Longman, 2001, pp. 235–64Google Scholar.

22 Khan, Iqtidar Alam, Gunpowder and firearms: warfare in medieval India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 191–9Google Scholar.

23 Begbie, P. J., History of the services of the Madras artillery, vol. 1, Madras: Christian Knowledge Society Press, 1852, pp. 12, 66, 86Google Scholar.

24 Khan, Riyazu-s-Salatin, pp. 387, 394, 396.

25 Thompson, E. W., The last siege of Seringapatam, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1990 (first published 1923), p. 50Google Scholar; Kaushik Roy, ‘Firepower-centric warfare in India and the military modernization of the Marathas: 1740–1818’, Indian Journal of History of Science, 40, 4, 2005, pp. 597–634; idem, ‘Technology and transformation of Sikh warfare: Dal Khalsa against the Lal Paltans, 1800–1849’, Indian Journal of History of Science, 41, 4, 2006, pp. 383–410.

26 M.P. Sridharan, ‘Tipu’s drive towards modernization: French evidence from the 1780s’, in Habib, Irfan, ed., Resistance and modernization under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, New Delhi: Tulika, 1999, p. 146Google Scholar; Pearman, John, Sergeant Pearman’s memoirs being, chiefly, his account of service with the Third (King’s Own) Light Dragoons in India, from 1845 to 1863, including the first and second Sikh wars, ed. Marquess of Anglesey, London: Jonathan Cape, 1968, p. 33Google Scholar.

27 Axworthy, Michael, The sword of Persia: Nader Shah from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, London: I.B. Tauris, 2006, p. 210Google Scholar. Habib, Irfan, ‘Akbar and technology’, in Irfan Habib, ed., Akbar and his India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 140–3Google Scholar.

28 Betham, R. M., Marathas and Dekhani musalmans, Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1908, pp. 75, 139Google Scholar.

29 H. Helsham Jones, ‘The campaigns of Lord Lake against the Marathas, 1804–6’, Papers of the Professional Corps of Royal Engineers, 8, 1882, p. 46.

30 Compton, Herbert, A particular account of the European military adventurers of Hindustan from 1784–1803, Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1976 (first published 1892), p. 47Google Scholar.

31 Brett-James, Antony, ed., Wellington at war, 1794–1815: a selection of his wartime letters, London: Macmillan & Co., 1961, pp. 84–5Google Scholar. Sindia’s artillery was based on the Gribeauval system.

32 F. N. Maude, quoted in Pearman, Sergeant Pearman’s memoir, p. 45.

33 Rogers, H. C. B., A history of artillery, Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press, 1975, pp. 55–6, 58Google Scholar.

34 Macmunn, George, Vignettes from Indian war, New Delhi: Low Price Publications (first published 1901), p. 34Google Scholar.

35 Barr, William, Journal of a march from Delhi to Peshawar and from thence to Cabul with the mission of Lieut.-Col. C.M. Wade, including travels in the Punjab, a visit to the city of Lahore, and a narrative of operations in the Khyber Pass, undertaken in 1839, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003 (first published 1844), p. 70Google Scholar.

36 Bancroft, N. W., From recruit to staff sergeant, with introduction and epilogue by Major-General B. P. Hughes, Hornchurch Essex: Ian Henry Publications, 1979 (first published 1885), p. 42Google Scholar.

37 McGregor, W. L., The history of the Sikhs, Allahabad: R.S. Publishing House, 1979 (first published 1846), vol. 2, pp. 48–63Google Scholar. The western Europeans learned the use of cotton-padded armour from the American Indians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: see Patricia Seed, ‘The conquest of the Americas: 1500–1650’, in Parker, Geoffrey, ed., The Cambridge illustrated history of warfare: the triumph of the West, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 141Google Scholar.

38 British Library, India Office Records (henceforth BL, IOR), Board’s Collections, 3078–3168, 1804–5, vol. 174, F/4/174, Extract Bengal military consultations, memo by Major R. Firth, May 1803.

39 Elliot, H. M., The history of India as told by its own historians, ed. and continued by John Dawson, New Delhi: D.K. Publishers, 2001, vol. 6, Appendix, p. 470Google Scholar.

40 Moienuddin, Mohammad, ‘Role of Tipu Sultan in the progress of Mysore state’, in Aniruddha Ray, ed., Tipu Sultan and his age: a collection of seminar papers, Kolkata: Asiatic Society, 2002, p. 33Google Scholar.

41 Bowring, Lewin B., Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan and the struggle with the musalman powers of the south, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1997 (first published 1899), p. 213Google Scholar.

42 Moienuddin, Mohammad, Sunset at Srirangapatam: after the death of Tipu Sultan, New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2000, p. 88Google Scholar.

43 Roddam Narasimha, ‘Rockets in Mysore and Britain: 1750–1850 CE’, unpublished project document DU 8503, National Aeronautical Laboratory, Bangalore, May 1985, p. 1.

44 Wilks, Mark, Historical sketches of the south of India in an attempt to trace the history of Mysore from the origin of the Hindu government of that state to the extinction of the mohammedan dynasty in 1799, ed. Murray Hammick, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1989 (first published 1810), vol. 1, p. 572Google Scholar.

45 In the Battle of Sobraon (10 February 1846), the EIC’s force used rocket batteries (twenty-four-pounder rockets fired from the tripods) against the Dal Khalsa: Pearson, Sergeant Pearman’s memoirs, p. 50.

46 Kaushik Roy, ‘Rockets under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan’, Indian Journal of History of Science, 40, 4, 2005, pp. 635–55.

47 Charney, Michael W., Southeast Asian warfare: 1300–1900, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2004, p. 63Google Scholar.

48 Parliamentary Papers (henceforth PP), ‘Minutes of evidence taken before the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company’, vol. 5, ‘Military’, 1832, p. 182.

49 David Chandler and Ian Beckett, ‘Introduction’, John Childs, ‘The Restoration army: 1660–1702’, Tony Hayter, ‘The army and the first British empire: 1714–1783’, and Peter Burroughs, ‘An unreformed army? 1816–68’, in Chandler and Beckett, History of the British army, pp. xvi, 63, 112, 168.

50 Alan J. Guy, ‘The Irish military establishment, 1660–1776’, and Harman Murtagh, ‘Irish soldiers abroad, 1600–1800’, in Bartlett, Thomas and Jeffery, Keith, eds., A military history of Ireland, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 229–30, 306Google Scholar.

51 Houlding, J. A., Fit for service: the training of the British army, 1715–1795, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p. 13Google Scholar.

52 B. P. Hughes, ‘Introduction’, in Bancroft, Recruit to staff sergeant, p. 7; ‘The Bengal artillery’, article V, Calcutta Review, 9, 17, 1848, pp. 418–19, 441–2, 446–7; Butalia, R. C., The evolution of the artillery in India: from the Battle of Plassey (1757) to the Revolt of 1857, New Delhi: Allied, 1998, pp. 115–16, 119Google Scholar. Recruitment of POWs was not unique to the EIC’s military establishment: in 1734, the Spanish army in Italy recruited Austrian POWs for its own ranks: Cristina Borreguero Beltran, ‘The Spanish army in Italy, 1734’, War in History, 5, 4, 1998, p. 413.

53 ‘Bengal artillery’, article V, p. 418.

54 T. A. Heathcote, ‘The army of British India’, in Chandler and Beckett, History of the British army, p. 376.

55 Dodwell, Henry, ed. Calendar of the Madras despatches: 1744–55, Madras: Madras Govt. Press, 1920, pp. 5, 11Google Scholar.

56 Records of Fort St. George: letters to Fort St. George 1750, vol. 31, Madras: Superintendent of Govt. Press, 1932, pp. 1, 3.

57 John F. Richards, ‘Early modern India and world history’, Journal of World History, 8, 2, 1997, p. 207.

58 Victor E. Neuburg, ‘The British army in the eighteenth century’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 61, 245, 1983, p. 44.

59 In pre-modern India, the tradition of bhrata balas (military mercenaries) was quite common, and the EIC effectively tapped into this tradition. See V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, ‘Indian martial tradition’, Journal of the Ganganath Jha Research Institute, 3, 3–4, 1946, pp. 263–77.

60 PP, 1867, 27 November 1830, p. 175.

61 Jadunath Sarkar, Fall of the Mughal empire, 1754–71, 4 vols., New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1991 (first published 1932–50), vol. 2, 1754–71, pp. 20, 32.

62 Bingley, A. H. and Nicholls, A., Caste handbooks for the Indian army: Brahmins, Simla: Government Central Office, 1897, p. 48Google Scholar.

63 National Archives of India (henceforth NAI), Delhi, Court of Enquiry into the Barrackpur Mutiny, minutes of evidence, 1824, vol. 11, p. 479.

64 NAI, General order by the commander-in-chief, no. 197, 4 December 1823.

65 Douglas M. Peers, ‘“The habitual nobility of being”: British officers and the social construction of the Bengal army in the early nineteenth century’, Modern Asian Studies, 25, 3, 1991, p. 549.

66 Rosen, Stephen Peter, Societies and military power: India and its armies, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996Google Scholar.

67 Alavi, Seema, The sepoys and the Company: tradition and transition in northern India, 1770–1830, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995Google Scholar.

68 Black, Jeremy, European warfare: 1660–1815, London: Routledge, 2003, pp. 218–22Google Scholar.

69 Gait, Edward, A history of Assam, Guwahati: EBH Publishers, 2008 (first published 1905), pp. 343, 353Google Scholar.

70 BL, IOR, Board’s Collections, 1804–5, vol. 174, F/4/174, Consultation no. 76, Extract military letter from Bengal, 1 February 1804.

71 Gait, History of Assam, pp. 352, 362, 374.

72 G. J. Bryant, ‘The cavalry problem in the early British Indian army, 1750–85’, War in History, 2, 1, 1995, pp. 1–21.

73 Sarkar, Fall of the Mughal empire, vol. 3, pp. 25–6.

74 Elgood, Robert, Hindu arms and ritual: arms and armour from India, 1400–1865, Ahmedabad: Mapin, 2004, p. 290Google Scholar.

75 Wilson, W. J., Historical record of the Fourth Prince of Wales’ Own Regiment Madras Light Cavalry, Madras: Government Office, 1877, pp. 1, 3, 92–3Google Scholar.

76 Sita Ram Kohli, ed., Fort William–India House correspondence and other contemporary papers relating thereto (military series), vol. 21, 1797–1800, New Delhi: National Archives of India, 1969, p. 25.

77 Lorenzo M. Crowell, ‘Military professionalism in a colonial context: the Madras army, circa 1832’, Modern Asian Studies, 24, 2, 1990, pp. 249–73; Callahan, Raymond, The East India Company and army reform, 1783–1798, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972Google Scholar.

78 Wilson, Fourth Prince of Wales’ Own Regiment, p. 35.

79 NAI, Historical records of the 7th Bombay Infantry Regiment, pp. 1–2.

80 Haraprasad Chattopadhyaya, ‘Sepoy army: its strength and composition’, Calcutta Review, 30, 1956, p. 197.

81 Subedar and resaldar were Indian officers of the infantry and cavalry respectively, one commanding an infantry company and the other a cavalry troop. They were known as viceroy’s commissioned officers (VCOs) and were either promoted from the ranks or were clan chiefs who were appointed directly to this rank. Although they were technically lower than the most junior British ensign, they were consulted by the senior British regimental officers on matters of discipline and interior economy of the regiments, thus functioning as a link between the British officers and the Indian rank and file.

82 Wilson, Fourth Prince of Wales’ Own Regiment, p. 58.

83 NAI, Digest of Services of 3rd Hyderabad Contingent Cavalry Regiment, 4 November 1888.

84 BL, IOR, Board’s Collections, Extract Bengal military consultations, letter to the Adjutant-General, 13 July 1803.

85 Colin Jones, ‘The military revolution and the professionalisation of the French army under the ancien regime’, in Rogers, Military revolution debate, p. 159.

86 Historical Records of the 7th Bombay Infantry Regiment, p. 5.

87 Hoover, James W., Men without hats: dialogue, discipline and discontent in the Madras army, 1806–7, New Delhi: Manohar, 2007.Google Scholar

88 One bigha is equivalent to twenty katha and one katha is equal to 700 square feet.

89 NAI, James Colebrook, ‘Supplement to the digest of the regulations and laws enacted by the Governor-General in council for the civil government of the territories under the presidency of Bengal containing a collection of the regulations enacted anterior to the year MDCCXCIII’.

90 Sue Pyatt Peeler, ‘Land forces of the English East India Company in the seventeenth century’, Journal of Indian History, Golden Jubilee volume, 1973, p. 552.

91 F. G. Cardew, A sketch of the services of the Bengal native army to the year 1895, Faridabad: Today and Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, 1971 (first published 1903), p. 3.

92 Buckle, E., Memoir of the services of the Bengal artillery from the formation of the corps to the present time with some account of its internal organization, ed. J. W. Kaye, London: W.H. Allen and Co., 1852, p. 5Google Scholar.

93 McPherson, William Charles, ed., Soldiering in India, 1764–1787: extracts from journals and letters left by Lt. Col. Allan Macpherson and Lt. Col. John Macpherson of the East India Company’s service, Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons Ltd., 1928, p. 15Google Scholar.

94 Chesney, George, Indian polity: a view of the system of administration in India, New Delhi: Metropolitan Books, 1976 (first published 1894), p. 209Google Scholar.

95 PP, Reports from the Select Committees on the Affairs of the East India Company with appendices, colonies, East India, sessions 1805–10, Shannon: Irish University Press, 1971, pp. 112, 131.

96 Van Creveld, Martin, Supplying war: logistics from Wallenstein to Patton, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977, p. 1Google Scholar.

97 Ibid., p. 231.

98 Bullock, Humphry, History of the Army Service Corps, vol. 1, 1760–1857, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1976 (first published 1952), p. 25Google Scholar.

99 Ram Kohli, Fort William–India House correspondence, vol. 21, p. 43; NAI, Military Department Proceedings, Progs. no. 16, statement showing the pay of native followers, 1 March 1860.

100 Bullock, Army Service Corps, vol. 1, p. 25.

101 Subdivision within a caste.

102 Bingley and Nicholls, Brahmins, pp. 15, 43.

103 Letters to Fort St. George 1750, p. 29.

104 Calendar of Persian correspondence: being letters which passed between some of the Company’s servants and Indian rulers and notables, vol. 9, 1790–1, New Delhi: NAI, 1949, p. 334Google Scholar.

105 Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan, ed. and trans., The military despatches of a seventeenth century Indian general, being the English translation of the Haft Anjuman of Munshi Udairaj alias Taleyar Khan, Calcutta: Scientific Book Agency, 1969, p. 33Google Scholar.

106 Bullock, Army Service Corps, vol. 1, p. 27.

107 Letters to Fort St. George 1750, p. 46.

108 BL, IOR, Board’s Collection, Extract Bengal military consultations, 22 September 1803.

109 Pratulchandra Gupta, ed., ‘John Macleod’s private journal during the Maratha War 1817–18’, Bengal Past and Present, C, 190, 1981, p. 73.

110 Charney, Southeast Asian warfare, pp. 148–9.

111 Sarkar, Fall of the Mughal empire, vol. 2, pp. 176–7.

112 Buckle, Memoir of the services of the Bengal artillery, pp. 573–4.

113 Cole, D. H. and Priestley, E. C., An outline of British military history: 1600–1937, London: Sifton Praed & Co., 1937, p. 419Google Scholar.

114 Richard Glover, ‘The elephant in ancient war’, Classical Journal, 39, 5, 1944, p. 257.

115 Calendar of Persian correspondence, vol. 9, p. 183; BL, IOR, Board’s Collection, Extract Bengal military consultations, 22 September 1803.

116 Gait, History of Assam, p. 355.

117 Bullock, Army Service Corps, vol. 1, p. 185.

118 William Gervase Clarence-Smith, ‘Cape to Siberia: the Indian Ocean and China sea trade in equids’, in Killingray, David, Lincoln, Margarette, and Rigby, Nigel, eds., Maritime empires: British imperial maritime trade in the nineteenth century, Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2004, pp. 48–67Google Scholar.

119 Pant, G. N., Horses and elephant armour, New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1997, p. 226Google Scholar; Lafont, Jean-Marie, ‘The commerce of Punjab and Kashmir in 1832: C. M. Wade’s report to the East India Company’, in INDIKA: essays in Indo-French relations, 1630–1976, New Delhi: Manohar, 2000, pp. 353–4Google Scholar; Sarkar, Fall of the Mughal empire, vol. 3, pp. 90–1; Suri, Lal Sohan Lal, Umdat-ut-Tawarikh, Daftar III, Parts I–IV, tr. V. S. Suri, New Delhi: S. Chand, 1961, p. 4Google Scholar.

120 Elliot, History of India, vol. 6, Appendix, pp. 457, 481–2.

121 Calendar of Persian correspondence, vol. 9, pp. 333–4, 339.

122 PP, Third and fourth reports from the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company with appendices, colonies East India 2, Irish University Press Series of British Parliamentary Papers, 1810–12, Shannon: Irish University Press, 1969, pp. 221–4.

123 Buckle, Memoir of the services of the Bengal artillery, pp. 40–1.

124 Letters to Fort St. George, 1750, p. 2.

125 Buckle, Memoir of the services of the Bengal artillery, p. 42.

126 Black, Britain as a military power, p. 8.

127 PP, 1805–10, Estimate of the expense incurred by the EIC on account of HM’s troops, p. 112, Report, 26 June 1805, Appendix no. 5, p. 223. £1 was equivalent to ten rupees.

128 Ali, M. Athar, ‘Recent theories of eighteenth-century India’, in Mughal India: studies in polity, ideas, society, and culture, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 357Google Scholar.

129 PP, 1805–10, Second report, 11 May 1810, p. 269.

130 Pearman, Sergeant Pearman’s memoirs, p. 59.

131 Hatalkar, V. G., ed. and trans., French records relating to the history of the Marathas, Bombay: State Board for Literature and Culture Mantralaya, 1978, vol. 2, p. 17Google Scholar.

132 Cooper, Randolf G. S., The Anglo-Maratha campaigns and the contest for India: the struggle for control of the South Asian military economy, New Delhi: Foundation, 2005, pp. 213–83Google Scholar.

133 Steinbach, Henry, The country of the Sikhs, New Delhi: KLM Book House, 1977 (first published 1849), pp. 23–40Google Scholar.

134 Black, European warfare, pp. 115, 122, 130.

135 Munis D. Faruqui, ‘At the empire’s end: the nizam, Hyderabad and eighteenth-century India’, Modern Asian Studies, 43, 1, 2009, pp. 5–43; Hasan, S. Nurul, ‘Zamindars under the Mughals’, in Religion, state and society in medieval India, ed. Satish Chandra, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 135–50Google Scholar.

136 Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ‘Warfare and state finance in Wodeyar Mysore, 1724–5: a missionary perspective’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 26, 2, 1989, pp. 203–33.

137 Sinha, N. K., Haidar Ali, Calcutta: A. Mukherjee & Co., 1969 (first published 1941)Google Scholar.

138 Virginia Aksan, ‘Ottoman war and warfare: 1453–1812’, in Black, War in the early modern world, p. 150; Rhoads Murphey, Ottoman Warfare: 1500–1700, London: Routledge, pp. 156–7.

139 Stewart N. Gordon, ‘Symbolic and structural constraints on the adoption of European-style military technologies in the eighteenth century’, in Barnett, Richard B., ed., Rethinking early modern India, New Delhi: Manohar, 2002, pp. 155–78Google Scholar; Gordon, Stewart N., ‘Zones of military entrepreneurship in India, 1500–1700’, in Gordon, ed., Marathas, marauders, and state formation in eighteenth-century India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 187–8Google Scholar.

140 Grewal, J. S., The Sikhs of the Punjab, New Cambridge History of India, II.3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 119–24Google Scholar.

141 Poona Akhbars, vol. 1, Hyderabad: Central Records Office, 1953, pp. 4–5, 7Google Scholar.

142 Joshi, P. M., ed., Selections from the Peshwa Daftar (new series), revival of Maratha power (1761–72), Bombay: Central Govt. Press, 1962, pp. 38–9Google Scholar.

143 Virginia H. Aksan, ‘Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman war’, War in History, 5, 1, 1998, pp. 23–36; Agoston, Gabor, Guns for the sultan: military power and the weapons industry in the Ottoman empire, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 23Google Scholar; Ralston, David B., Importing the European army: the introduction of European military techniques and institutions into the extra-European world, 1600–1914, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990, p. 54Google Scholar; Streusand, Douglas E., Islamic gunpowder empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals, Boulder, CO: Westview, 2011, p. 292Google Scholar.

144 Dirk H. A. Kolff, ‘A millennium of stateless Indian history?’, in Datta, Rajat, ed., Rethinking a millennium: perspectives on Indian history from the eighth to the eighteenth century: essays for Harbans Mukhia, New Delhi: Aakar, 2008, pp. 51–67Google Scholar; Stewart Gordon, ‘Scarf and sword: thugs, marauders, and state formation in eighteenth-century Malwa’ and ‘The slow conquest: administrative integration of Malwa into the Maratha empire, 1720–60’, in Gordon, Marathas, marauders, pp. 13–21, 23–43.

145 Gommans, Jos, Mughal warfare: Indian frontiers and high roads to empire, 1500–1700, London and New York: Routledge, 2002CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dirk H. A. Kolff, ‘End of an ancien regime: colonial war in India, 1790–1818’, in DeMoor, J. A. and Wesseling, H. L., eds., Imperialism and war: essays on colonial warfare in Asia and Africa, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989, pp. 22–49Google Scholar.

146 Kolff, Dirk H.A., Naukar, Rajput & Sepoy: The ethnohistory of the military labour market in Hindustan, 1450–1850, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990Google Scholar; Streusand, Douglas E., The formation of the Mughal empire, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 41Google Scholar.