Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T00:51:22.617Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The League of Nations: a retreat from international law?*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2012

Stephen Wertheim
Stephen Wertheim*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Columbia University, 611 Fayerweather Hall, 1180 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY 10027, USA E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

During the First World War, civil society groups across the North Atlantic put forward an array of plans for recasting international society. The most prominent ones sought to build on the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907 by developing international legal codes and, in a drastic innovation, obligating and militarily enforcing the judicial settlement of disputes. Their ideal was a world governed by law, which they opposed to politics. This idea was championed by the largest groups in the United States and France in favour of international organizations, and they had likeminded counterparts in Britain. The Anglo-American architects of the League of Nations, however, defined their vision against legalism. Their declaratory design sought to ensure that artificial machinery never stifled the growth of common consciousness. Paradoxically, the bold new experiment in international organization was forged from an anti-formalistic ethos – one that slowed the momentum of international law and portended the rise of global governance.

Keywords

global civil societyinternational lawinternational organizationinternationalismLeague of Nations
Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Global History , Volume 7 , Issue 2 , July 2012 , pp. 210 - 232
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Alfred Zimmern, The League of Nations and the rule of law, 1918–1935, 2nd edn, London: Macmillan, 1939, pp. 124–125Google Scholar, 161–5.

2 G. John Ikenberry, After victory: institutions, strategic restraint, and the rebuilding of order after major wars, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001Google Scholar; Akira Iriye, Global community: the role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002Google Scholar; Paul Kennedy, The parliament of man: the past, present, and future of the United Nations, New York: Random House, 2006Google Scholar.

3 Kennedy, David, ‘The move to institutions’, Cardozo Law Review, 8, 5, 1987, pp. 841–988Google Scholar.

4 Cemil Aydin, The politics of anti-Westernism in Asia, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007Google Scholar, ch. 5; Carl Bouchard, Le citoyen et l'ordre mondial: le rêve d'une paix durable au lendemain de la Grande Guerre, Paris: Pedone, 2008Google Scholar; Erez Manela, The Wilsonian moment: self-determination and the international origins of anticolonial nationalism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007Google Scholar; Timothy Mitchell, Carbon democracy: political power in the age of oil, London: Verso, 2011Google Scholar, chs. 3–4; Peter Yearwood, Guarantee of peace: the League of Nations in British policy, 1914–1925, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009Google Scholar, chs. 1–4.

5 Detailed accounts of legalistic league advocacy in the United States include Benjamin Coates, ‘Transatlantic advocates: American international law and US foreign relations, 1898–1919’, PhD thesis, Columbia University, 2010, ch. 7; Patterson, David, ‘The United States and the origins of the world court’, Political Science Quarterly, 91, 2, 1976, pp. 279–295CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wertheim, Stephen, ‘The league that wasn't: American designs for a legalist-sanctionist league of nations and the intellectual origins of international organization, 1914–1920’, Diplomatic History, 35, 5, 2011, pp. 797–836CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Donald Birn, The League of Nations Union, 1918–1945, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p. 15Google Scholar.

7 Sandra Herman calls this ‘community’, as opposed to ‘polity’, internationalism; Thomas Knock writes of ‘progressive’, as opposed to ‘conservative’, internationalism. See Sandra Herman, Eleven against war: studies in American internationalist thought, 1898–1921, Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1969Google Scholar; Thomas Knock, To end all wars: Woodrow Wilson and the quest for a new world order, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992Google Scholar; David Patterson, The search for a negotiated peace: women's activism and citizen diplomacy in World War I, New York: Routledge, 2008Google Scholar.

8 This excludes the month-long secretaryship of Robert Bacon in 1909. Coates, ‘Transatlantic advocates’, p. 167.

9 Michael Lutzker, ‘The “practical” peace advocates: an interpretation of the American peace movement, 1898–1917’, PhD thesis, Rutgers University, 1969; Reid, Cecilie, ‘Peace and law: peace activism and international arbitration, 1895–1907’, Peace & Change, 29, 3–4, 2004, pp. 521–548Google Scholar.

10 Eyffinger, Arthur, ‘A highly critical moment: role and record of the 1907 Hague Peace Conference’, Netherlands International Law Review, 54, 2007, pp. 218–219CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Peter Holquist, The Russian empire as a ‘civilized state’, Washington, DC: National Council for Eurasian and East European Research, 2004Google Scholar.

11 Helen Cory, Compulsory arbitration of international disputes, New York: Columbia University Press, 1932, pp. 43–86Google Scholar; Warren Kuehl, Seeking world order: the United States and international organization to 1920, Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1969, pp. 30–142Google Scholar; Thomas Joseph Lawrence, The principles of international law, 6th edn, Boston, MA: D.C. Heath, 1915, pp. 579–586Google Scholar.

12 For example, Trueblood, Benjamin, ‘The gains of arbitration during the past year’, address at the Mohonk Arbitration Conference, 20 May 1908, in Advocate of Peace, 70, July 1908, pp. 167–168Google Scholar.

13 Roosevelt, Theodore, ‘International peace’, address before the Nobel Committee, 5 May 1910, in Lawrence Abbott, ed., African and European Addresses, New York and London: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1910, pp. 81–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roland Stromberg, Collective security and American foreign policy, New York: Frederick Praeger, 1963, pp. 3–4Google Scholar.

14 See the florid Nicholas Murray Butler, The international mind, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912Google Scholar.

15 Elihu Root Papers, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Washington, DC (henceforth Root Papers), Box 136, Root to George Gibbons, 8 December 1916.

16 For example, William H. Taft, speech to the LEP Convention in Philadelphia, 17 June 1915, in Theodore Marburg and Horace Flack, eds., Taft papers on League of Nations, New York: Macmillan, 1920, pp. 50–51Google Scholar.

17 Theodore Marburg, ‘The obligation to keep the peace’, The Independent, 14 June 1915, 82, 3471, p. 461; see also Hidemi Suganami, The domestic analogy and world order proposals, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 79–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 LEP Platform, 17 June 1915, in Frank Gerrity and David Burton, eds., The collected works of William Howard Taft, vol. 7, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2003, pp. 3–4Google Scholar.

19 Ruhl Bartlett, The League to Enforce Peace, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1944, pp. 61–62Google Scholar; A. Lawrence Lowell Papers, Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA (henceforth Lowell Papers), Box 108, Theodore Marburg to foreign ministers of Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, France, Greece, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.

20 Bartlett, League to Enforce Peace, pp. 127–130Google Scholar.

21 Bartlett, League to Enforce Peace, pp. 52–55Google Scholar; William Jennings Bryan and William H. Taft, World peace, New York: George Doran, 1917Google Scholar. On anti-LEP lawyers, see Coates, ‘Transatlantic advocates’, pp. 396–403.

22 William H. Taft, address to the LEP Convention in Philadelphia, 17 June 1915, in Marburg and Flack, Taft papers, p. 50.

23 See Wertheim, ‘The league that wasn't’, pp. 810–812Google Scholar.

24 Roosevelt, Theodore, ‘The League to Enforce Peace’, 2 December 1918, in Roosevelt in the Kansas City Star, Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1921, pp. 278–279Google Scholar.

25 Roosevelt, Theodore, ‘The League of Nations’, 17 November 1918, in Roosevelt in the Kansas City Star, p. 263Google Scholar.

26 Roosevelt to Susan Dexter Dalton Cooley, 2 December 1914, in Elting Morison, ed., The letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 8, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954, p. 853Google Scholar.

27 See Frederick Marks, Velvet on iron: the diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt, Lincoln, NE, and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1979, pp. 95–117Google Scholar.

28 Roosevelt to Susan Dexter Dalton Cooley, 2 December 1914.

29 Dubin, Martin David, ‘Elihu Root and the advocacy of a league of nations, 1914–1917’, Western Political Quarterly 19, 3, September 1966, pp. 439–455CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wertheim, ‘The league that wasn't’, pp. 810–815Google Scholar, 822–5.

30 Lowell Papers, Box 112, Root to Lowell, 10 February 1916.

31 Root Papers, Box 137, Root to Will Hays, 29 March 1919.

32 Antoine Pillet, De l'idée d'une société des nations, Paris: Marcel Rivière & Cie, 1919, p. 18Google Scholar.

33 Martti Koskenniemi, The gentle civilizer of nations: the rise and fall of international law, 1870–1960, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 291–293Google Scholar.

34 See, for example, Léon Bourgeois Papers, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives, Paris (henceforth Bourgeois Papers), PA-AP 29, P16053, Minutes from the founding of the Ligue pour une Société des Nations, 3 January 1917; Marburg to Bourgeois, 13 September 1917; Bourgeois to Hamilton Holt and Henderson Wadhams, 1 May 1918.

35 Recent exceptions to purely national frameworks are Christian Birebent, Militants de la paix et de la SDN, Paris: Harmattan, 2007Google Scholar; Bouchard, Le citoyen.

36 Clinton, Michael, ‘“Revanche ou relèvement”: the French peace movement confronts Alsace and Lorraine, 1871–1918’, Canadian Journal of History, 40, 3, 2005, pp. 435–440CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sandi Cooper, Patriotic pacifism: waging war against war in Europe, 1815–1914, New York: Oxford University Press, 1991Google Scholar, chs. 2–4; Cooper, Sandi, ‘Pacifism in France, 1889–1914’, French Historical Studies, 17, 2, 1991, pp. 360–364Google Scholar.

37 Michael Clinton, ‘“Peace through justice”: l'Association de la Paix par le Droit and the evolution of patriotic pacifism’, unpublished paper for Forty-sixth Annual Meeting for the Society of French Historical Studies, Arizona State University, Scottsdale/Tempe, AZ, 30 March–1 April 2000, p. 2.

38 Cooper, ‘Pacifism’, pp. 369–370Google Scholar. See, for example, ‘Refus de porter les armes’, IIème Congrès National des Sociétés Françaises de la Paix: Nîmes: 7, 8, 9 et 10 Avril 1904, Nîmes: Bureaux de l'Association de la Paix par le Droit, 1904, pp. 40–51.

39 Clinton, ‘“Revanche ou relèvement”’, pp. 442–445Google Scholar. On the limits of legalism in French foreign policy, see M. B. Hayne, The French foreign office and the origins of the First World War, 1898–1914, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993Google Scholar.

40 Guieu, Jean-Michel, ‘“Pour la paix par la Société Des Nations’, Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains, 222, 2, 2006, pp. 90–97Google Scholar.

41 Bouchard, Carl, ‘Des citoyens français à la recherche de la paix durable (1914–1919)’, Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains, 222, 2, 2006, pp. 67–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 See Guieu, ‘“Pour la paix’, pp. 95–96Google Scholar; William Irvine, Between justice and politics: the Ligue des Droits de l'Homme, 1898–1945, Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007, pp. 131–137Google Scholar.

43 Bouchard, Carl, ‘From French federalism to world federalism: Jean Hennessy's Société Proudhon’, Proceedings of the Western Society for French History, 34, 2006, pp. 233–246Google Scholar; Jean-Michel Guieu, ‘De Proudhon à Pétain: le parcours européen de Jean Hennessy’, in Gérard Bossuat, ed., Inventer l'Europe, Brussels: PIE Lang, 2003, pp. 111–123Google Scholar.

44 Théodore Ruyssen, ‘Le problème de la paix durable’, La Paix par le Droit, 10–25 June 1915, 25, 11–12, pp. 382–4.

45 Gabriel Séailles, Les conditions d'une paix durable, Paris: Ligue des Droits de l'Homme, 1916, p. 18Google Scholar.

46 Guieu, ‘“Pour la paix’, pp. 98–100Google Scholar.

47 Association Française pour la Société des Nations, ‘Notre programme’, Paris: Georges Cadet, 1918, p. 2.

48 Association Française pour la Société des Nations, ‘Appel du comit d'initiative’, Paris: Georges Cadet, 1918, p. 7.

49 ‘Plans for the League of Rights of Man’, in Theodore Marburg, Development of the League of Nations idea, vol. 2, New York: Macmillan, 1932, pp. 771–773Google Scholar; ‘Appeal to form a French Association for the Society of Nations’, September 1918, in ibid., p. 824.

50 Jean-Michel Guieu, Le rameau et le glaive: les militants français pour la Société des Nations, Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2008, pp. 44–45Google Scholar.

51 Guieu, Le rameau, pp. 37–40Google Scholar, 48, 59; Henri Lepert, ‘Lepert and Otlet Plans’, in Marburg, Development, vol. 2, pp. 767–8.

52 Blair, Scott, ‘Les origines en France de la SDN: la commission interministérielle d’études pour la Société des Nations, 1917–1919’, Relations Internationales, 75, 1993, pp. 277–292Google Scholar.

53 Hayward, J. E. S., ‘The official social philosophy of the French Third Republic’, International Review of Social History, 6, 1, 1961, pp. 19–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Menard, Orville, ‘Léon Bourgeois, Antoine de Saint-Exupery, and “solidarité”’, International Social Science Review, 68, 1, 1993, pp. 3–11Google Scholar; Alexandre Niess and Maurice Vaïsse, eds., Léon Bourgeois: du solidarisme à la Société des Nations, Langres: Dominique Guéniot, 2006Google Scholar.

54 Léon Bourgeois, ‘The reasons for the League of Nations’, December 1922, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1920/bourgeois-lecture.html (consulted 14 March 2012); see also Léon Bourgeois, Soldarité, Paris: Colin, 1896Google Scholar.

55 Léon Bourgeois, Pour la société des nations, Paris: Bibliothèque-Charpentier, 1910, pp. 13Google Scholar, 177.

56 Paul Henri d'Estournelles de Constant, ‘La politique de la paix’, lecture at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales, Paris, 29 November and 6 December 1902, in La paix et l'enseignement pacifiste, Paris: Félix Alcan, 1904, p. 8.

57 Bourgeois Papers, PA-AP 29, P16053, Bourgeois to Hamilton Holt and Henderson Wadhams, 1 May 1918.

58 ‘Official French plan for a League of Nations’, in Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson and world settlement, vol. 3, New York: Doubleday, 1922, p. 154Google Scholar.

59 Kalevi Holsti, Peace and war: armed conflicts and international order, 1648–1989, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 194Google Scholar.

60 George Egerton, Great Britain and the creation of the League of Nations, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1978, p. 75Google Scholar.

61 David Newhall, Clemenceau: a life at war, Lampeter: Edward Mellen Press, 1991, pp. 376Google Scholar, 430; David Watson, Georges Clemenceau, London: Haus, 2008, p. 77Google Scholar.

62 David Hunter Miller, The drafting of the Covenant, vol. 1, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1928, p. 261Google Scholar.

63 Florence Wilson, The origins of the League Covenant, London: Leonard and Virginia Woolf, 1928, p. 18Google Scholar.

64 Kuehl, Seeking world order, p. 278Google Scholar; Marburg, Development, vol. 2, p. 824Google Scholar; Miller, Drafting, vol. 1, pp. 379–380Google Scholar, 404.

65 Zimmern, League of Nations, p. 188Google Scholar.

66 Yearwood, Guarantee of peace, pp. 7–137.

67 Jeanne Morefield, Covenants without swords: idealist liberalism and the spirit of empire, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005, pp. 97Google Scholar, 182. See also Mark Mazower, No enchanted palace: the end of empire and the ideological origins of the United Nations, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009Google Scholar, chs. 1–2; Paul Rich, ‘Alfred Zimmern's cautious idealism’, in David Long and Peter Wilson, eds., Thinkers of the twenty years’ crisis, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 77–99Google Scholar.

68 Zimmern, Alfred, ‘Some principles and problems of the settlement’, Round Table, 9, 33, December 1918, pp. 100–101Google Scholar, 112.

69 Woodrow Wilson, ‘The modern democratic state’, December 1885, in Arthur S. Link, ed., The papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 5, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968, pp. 68–69Google Scholar. See also Thompson, John, ‘Woodrow Wilson and a world governed by evolving law’, Journal of Policy History, 20, 1, 2008, pp. 113–125CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 Egerton, Great Britain, p. 131Google Scholar; Curry, George, ‘Woodrow Wilson, Jan Smuts, and the Versailles settlement’, American Historical Review, 66, 4, 1961, pp. 968–986CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 Congressional Record, 66th Cong., 1st Sess., 20 August 1919, p. 4014.

72 Minutes of seventh meeting of League of Nations Commission, 10 February 1919, in Miller, Drafting of the Covenant, vol. 2, p. 280Google Scholar.

73 Martin Ceadel, ‘The origins and Covenant of the League of Nations: a corrective to two standard simplifications’, unpublished paper for ‘Towards a New History of the League of Nations’ conference, Geneva, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, 25 August 2011, pp. 8–10.

74 Harold Temperley, ed., A history of the peace conference of Paris, London: Henry Frowde, 1924, vol. 6, pp. 459–460Google Scholar.

75 See Egerton, Great Britain, pp. 108–109Google Scholar; Jan Smuts, The League of Nations: a practical suggestion, New York: The Nation Press, 1919Google Scholar; Yearwood, Guarantee of peace, pp. 94, 138.

76 Egerton, Great Britain, pp. 93–94Google Scholar; Henry Winkler, The League of Nations movement in Great Britain, 1914–1919, Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1967, pp. 70Google Scholar, 255.

77 Winkler, League of Nations movement, pp. 65–69Google Scholar, 81.

78 Birn, League of Nations Union, p. 23Google Scholar; Winkler, League of Nations movement, pp. 68–69Google Scholar, 73, 77; see also Egerton, Great Britain, p. 51Google Scholar.

79 Birn, League of Nations Union, p. 8Google Scholar; Winkler, League of Nations movement, p. 77Google Scholar.

80 H. A. L. Fisher, James Bryce, vol. 2, New York: Macmillan, 1927, pp. 67–72Google Scholar.

81 Dubin, Martin David, ‘Toward the concept of collective security: the Bryce group's “proposals for the avoidance of war”, 1914–1917’, International Organization, 24, 2, 1970, pp. 300CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 309–10; Burton Hendrick, The life and letters of Walter H. Page, vol. 2, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Company, p. 165Google Scholar.

82 Sally Harris, Out of control: British foreign policy and the Union of Democratic Control, 1914–1918, Hull: University of Hull Press, 1996Google Scholar; Michael Howard, War and the liberal conscience, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978, pp. 75–84Google Scholar; Marvin Swartz, The Union of Democratic Control in British politics during the First World War, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971Google Scholar.

83 Ramsay MacDonald, National defence, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1917, pp. 57Google Scholar, 60.

84 Egerton, Great Britain, pp. 54–57Google Scholar.

85 Ibid., pp. 92–3.

86 Coates, ‘Transatlantic advocates’, p. 414.

87 Root Papers, Box 161, Root to Henry Cabot Lodge, 19 June 1919.

88 Antony Anghie, Imperialism, sovereignty, and the making of international law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004Google Scholar, ch. 3.

89 See Lorna Lloyd, Peace through law: Britain and the international court in the 1920s, Woodbridge and Rochester, NY: Royal Historical Society and Boydell Press, 1997Google Scholar; Yearwood, Guarantee of peace, pp. 282–325.

90 Anghie, Imperialism, pp. 127–131Google Scholar.

91 Woodrow Wilson, Address to the Peace Conference, 14 February 1919, in Link, Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 55, p. 175.

92 Felix Morley, The society of nations, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1932, p. 195Google Scholar.

93 Drummond to Arthur Balfour, 29 June 1921, quoted in W. J. Hudson, Australia and the League of Nations, Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1980, p. 44Google Scholar.

94 Inis Claude, ‘Collective security as an approach to peace’, in Donald Goldstein, Phil Williams, and Jay Shafritz, eds., Classic readings and contemporary debates in international relations, Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006, pp. 289–302Google Scholar; Egerton, George, ‘Collective security as political myth’, International History Review, 5, 4, 1983, pp. 502–503Google Scholar; Stromberg, Roland, ‘The idea of collective security’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 17, 2, 1956, pp. 250–263CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

95 Lloyd Ambrosius, Woodrow Wilson and the American diplomatic tradition: the treaty fight in perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 165–167Google Scholar, 180.

96 Yearwood, Guarantee of peace, pp. 3–4, 138–48.

97 Carolyn Kitching, Britain and the problem of international disarmament, 1919–1934, London and New York: Routledge, 1999, pp. 58–60Google Scholar; Yearwood, Guarantee of peace, pp. 211–50.

98 Yearwood, Guarantee of peace, pp. 161–2.

99 Ibid., p. 208.

100 Zara Steiner, The lights that failed: European international history, 1919–1933, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 349Google Scholar.

101 See Pedersen, Susan, ‘Back to the League of Nations’, American Historical Review, 112, 4, 2007, pp. 1096–1099CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102 See Dubin, Martin David, ‘Transgovernmental processes in the League of Nations’, International Organization, 37, 3, 1983, pp. 469–493CrossRefGoogle Scholar; The League of Nations in retrospect: proceedings of the symposium, Geneva: United Nations Library, 1983, pp. 19–92, 295–403.

103 See, among others, Clavin, Patricia and Wessels, Jens-Wilhelm, ‘Transnationalism and the League of Nations: understanding the work of its economic and financial organization’, Contemporary European History, 14, 4, 2005, pp. 465–492CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Barbara Metzger, ‘Towards an international human rights regime during the inter-war years: the League of Nations’ combat of traffic in women and children’, in Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine, and Frank Trentmann, eds., Beyond sovereignty: Britain, empire, and transnationalism, c. 1880–1950, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 54–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Claudena Skran, Refugees in inter-war Europe, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995Google Scholar; Paul Weindling, ed., International health organizations and movements, 1918–1939, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995Google Scholar.

104 Pedersen, ‘Back to the League of Nations’, pp. 1108–1112Google Scholar.

105 Zimmern, League of Nations, p. 162Google Scholar.