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⁶ McKeown, Adam, ‘Chinese emigration in global context, 1850–1940’, Journal of Global History, 5, 1, 2010, pp. 95–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Lake and Reynolds also end their study with post-war ‘universal rights’ apparently ensuring ‘individual rights without distinction’: Global colour line, pp. 352–56.

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³⁴ New South Wales, Quarantine Act, no. 1, 1832Google Scholar, preamble.

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³⁹ Hong Kong, Asiatic Emigration Ordinance, no. 30, 1915Google Scholar, part III.

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⁶¹ Published 3 January 1966 and commenced March 4 1966.

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⁷¹ Republic of Singapore, Immigration Act, 1970Google Scholar, section 8(2)(a)–(g).

⁷² Section 3 of the 1953 Ordinance also listed the usual definitions of prohibited immigration: likely to become a public charge; mental disorder or defective; refuses medical examination; convicted of an offence; prostitute or living on proceeds of prostitution; vagrants; political criteria (for example membership of an unlawful organization, or anyone advocating overthrow of government). Immigration Ordinance, no. 102, 1953.

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⁷⁷ Commonwealth of Australia, Immigration Act, no. 17, 1901Google Scholar, section 3.

⁷⁸ Malaysia, Immigration Act, ordinance no. 12, 1959/63, part 2, section 8(3).

⁷⁹ Tim Harper, End of empire, p. 317Google Scholar, explains the debates about ethnic Chinese being granted jus soli in Malaya.

⁸⁰ Malaysia, Immigration Act, ordinance no. 12, 1959/63, part 2, section 8(3)(i)–(j).

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⁸⁴ This might be claimed in other regions too, or even generally. That is, as a new kind of nationalism, post-war and postcolonial independence was often accompanied by policies that either excluded (or forcibly repatriated) diasporic communities or newly restricted a flow of people and money that had long been relatively open. See for example, Lekon, Christian, ‘The impact of remittances on the economy of Hadhramaut’, in Freitag and Clarence-Smith, Hadhrami traders, pp. 272–273Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ Canada, Act to amend the Immigration Act and to repeal the Chinese Immigration Act, chap. 19, 1947Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ United States of America, Act to repeal the Chinese Exclusion Acts and the parts of other Acts relating to the exclusion or deportation of persons of the Chinese race, chap. 344, 1943Google Scholar. For a counter-argument see

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⁸⁷ United States of America, Immigration and Nationality Act, chap. 477, 1952Google Scholar. This Act abolished the 1917 Asian Barred Zone, but, an expression of the Cold War era, it also created the Asia-Pacific Triangle, delineating the exclusion of and right to deport any alien who has engaged in or has had purpose to engage in activities prejudicial to the public interest or subversive to national security.

⁸⁸ United States of America, Act to amend the Immigration and Nationality Act, and for other purposes, no. 89, 1965Google Scholar, section 15–18.

⁸⁹ Gabaccia, Foreign relations, pp. 225–264Google Scholar. Historians recognize that the 1965 Act was a triumph of liberal pluralism but that it sustained major problems in US immigration history. See, for example,

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⁹² New Zealand, Aliens Act 1866, section 2.

⁹³ New Zealand, Immigration Restriction Act, act 33, 1899, section 3(1).

⁹⁴ This allegiance is examined in Lake, ‘Chinese colonists’.

⁹⁵ Colony of Singapore, Act to consolidate the law relating to and further to regulate immigration into the Colony, chap. 102, 1953, section 7.

⁹⁶ Commonwealth of Australia, Migration Act, no. 62, 1958Google Scholar, section 5.

⁹⁷ United Kingdom, Commonwealth Immigrants Act, chap. 9, 1968Google Scholar; See

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