Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T01:03:16.082Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

At the Interface of Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics: Indo-European Dispersals and the agricultural transition in Europe

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Marek Zvelebil
Marek Zvelebil*
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield, West Street, Sheffield, S1 4ET, Great Britain
Get access

Abstract

Indo-European languages are believed to have spread through population movements from the original epicentre. In recent years, this diffusion and divergence of languages from the ∗proto-Indo-European mother tongue has been identified with the dispersal of farming populations from the region of Anatolia/northern Iran, who are held (e.g. by Renfrew) to have gradually colonised Europe between c. 6000 and 3000 bc. It is here argued that this was not necessarily the case, and an alternative explanation for the divergence of Indo-European languages is presented, based on contact, exchange, trade, and intermarriage. Linguistic models for contact-induced language change, the archaeological evidence for such contacts at the transition to farming in Europe, and evidence for the adoption of farming by the local, hunter-gatherer populations are discussed. This leads to the formulation of the ‘Neolithic creolisation hypothesis’. The paper finally suggests a scheme for the divergence of the Indo-European languages following this hypothesis and discusses the linguistic implications.

Die indoeuropäischen Sprachen haben sich angeblich durch Völkerwanderungen von ihrer Urheimat ausgebreitet. Diese Diffusion und Ausplitterung von Sprachen, die vom ∗Proto-Indo-europäischen abstammen, ist jüngst mit der Ausbreitung der Landwirtschaft betreibenden Völker verbunden worden; von diesen wird angenommen (z. B. von Renfrew), daß sie zwischen circa 6.000 und 3.000 bc von Anatolien/Nord-Iran aus Europa kolonisiert haben. Hier wird argumentiert, daß das nicht unbedingt der Fall war, und stattdessen wird eine alternative Erklärung für die Ausbreitung der indoeuropäischen Sprachen vorgestellt, die auf Kontakt, Austausch, Handel und Heirat zwischen verschiedenen Gruppen abhebt. Diskutiert werden linguistische Modelle für Sprachwandel, der durch Kontakte herbeigeführt wird, archäologische Quellen, die solche Kontakte zur Zeit des Übergangs zur Landwirtschaft in Europa belegen sowie die Befunde, für die Übernahme der Landwirtschaft durch lokale Jäger- und Sammlerpopulationen. Dies mündet in die Formulierung einer ‘neolithischen Kreolisierungshypothese’. Der Autor schlägt am Ende ein Schema für die Aufsplitterung der indoeuropäischen Sprachen vor, das dieser Hypothese entspricht, und diskutiert dessen linguistische Implikationen.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of European Archaeology , Volume 3 , Issue 1 , Spring 1995 , pp. 33 - 70
Copyright
Copyright © European Association of Archaeologists 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, John, 1978. Frontier studies and the earliest farmers in Europe. In Green, D., Haselgrove, C., and Spriggs, M. (eds), Social Organisation and Settlement: 13–29. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports (International Series 47).Google Scholar
Allchin, Brigitte and Allchin, Robert, 1982. The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ammerman, Albert J., 1989. On the Neolithic transition in Europe: a comment on Zvelebil & Zvelebil (1988). Antiquity 63: 162–165.Google Scholar
Ammerman, Albert J. and Cavalu-Sforza, Luigi L., 1984. The Neolithic Transition and the Genetics of Population in Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Anthony, David W., 1986. The ‘Kurgan culture’, Indo-European origins, and the domestication of the horse: a reconsideration. Current Anthropology 27: 291–313.Google Scholar
Anthony, David W., 1990. Migration in archaeology: the baby and the bathwater. American Anthropologist 92 (4): 895–914.Google Scholar
Anthony, David W., 1994. On subsistence change at the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. Current Anthropology 35: 49–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anthony, David W. and Brown, Dorcas, 1991. The origins of horseback riding. Antiquity 65: 22–38.Google Scholar
Anttila, R., 1972. An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics. New York.Google Scholar
Arnold, Bettina, 1990. The past as propaganda: totalitarian archaeology in Nazi Germany. Antquity 64 (244): 464–478.Google Scholar
Armelagos, George J., Goodman, Allan H., and Jacobs, Kenneth H., 1991. The origins of agriculture: population growth during a period of declining health. Population and Environment: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Sciences 13: 9–22.Google Scholar
Baldi, P., 1988. Book review: Archaeology and Language. The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, by Colin Renfrew. Current Anthropology 29 (3): 445–448.Google Scholar
Barnett, William, 1990. Small-scale transport of early Neolithic pottery in the west Mediterranean. Antiquity 64: 859–865.Google Scholar
Barnett, William, in press. Putting the pot before the horse: earliest ceramics and the Neolithic transition in the west Mediterranean, In Barnett, W. K. and Hoopes, J. (eds), The Emergence of Pottery: Technology and Innovation in Ancient Societies: 79–88. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar
Bateman, R., Goddard, I., O'Grady, R., Funk, V. A., Mooi, R., Kress, W. J. and Cannell, P., 1990. Speaking of forked tongues. The feasibility of reconciling human phylogeny and the history of language. Current Anthropology 31 (1): 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, Lewis R., 1962. Archaeology as anthropology. American Antiquity 28: 217–225. (Reprinted in Binford, L. R., 1972, An Archaeological Perspective: 20–32. New York: Seminar Press.)Google Scholar
Bird, N., 1982. The Distribution of Indo-European Root-Morphemes. (A Checklist for philologists). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Blažek, Václav, 1993. Po stopách indoevropské pravlasti. Slovo a Slovesnost 54: 31–40.Google Scholar
Bogucki, Peter I., 1988. Forest Farmers and Stockherders: Early Agriculture and its Consequences in North-Central Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bosch-Gimpera, P., 1960. El Problema Indoeuropeo. Mexico: Direccion General de Publicaciones.Google Scholar
Bosch-Gimpera, P., 1961. Les Indo-Européens: Problèmes Archéologiques. Paris: Payot.Google Scholar
Braun, David P., 1983. Pots as tools. In Moore, James A. and Keene, Arthur S. (eds), Archaeological Hammers and Theories: 107–134. New York and London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Braun, David P., 1991. Why decorate a pot? Midwestern household pottery, 200 B.C. – A.D. 600. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10 (4): 360–397.Google Scholar
Calafell, F. and Betranpetit, J., 1993. The genetic history of the Iberian peninsula: a simulation. Current Anthropology 34: 735–745.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi L., 1991. Genes, peoples and languages. Scientific American, (November 1991) 263:72–78.Google Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi L., Menozzi, P., and Piazza, A., 1994. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chapman, John, 1994. The origins of farming in south-east Europe. Préhistoire Européenne 6: 133–156.Google Scholar
Chapman, John and Dolukhanov, Pavel, 1992. The baby and the bathwater: pulling the plug on migrations. American Anthropologist 94 (1): 169–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Childe, V. Gordon, 1925. The Dawn of European Civilisation. London: Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Childe, V. Gordon, 1926. The Ayrans: A Study of Indo-European Origins. London: Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Childe, V. Gordon, 1956. Piecing Together the Past. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Clarke, David L., 1968. Analytical Archaeology. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Cohen, Mark N., 1987. Health and the Rise of Civilisation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Coleman, R., 1988. Book review: Archaeology and Language. The Puzzle of Indo- European Origins, by Colin Renfrew. Current Anthropology 29 (3): 449–453.Google Scholar
Cribb, R., 1991. Nomads in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.Google Scholar
Crossland, R. A., 1971. Immigrants from the north. Cambridge Ancient History 1/2: 824–876.Google Scholar
Crossland, R. A., 1992. When specialists collide: archaeology and Indo-European linguistics. Antiquity 66: 251–254.Google Scholar
Dahl, G. and Hjort, A., 1976. Having Herds. Pastoral Herd Growth and Household Economy. Stockholm: University of Stockholm (Stockholm Studies in Social Anthropology 2).Google Scholar
Darwin, Charles 1859. The Origin of Species. London.Google Scholar
De Laet, S. J. (ed.), 1976. Acculturation and Continuity in Atlantic Europe. Brugge: De Tempel (Dissertationes Archaeologicae Gandensis).Google Scholar
Dennell, Robin, 1983. European Economic Prehistory: A New Approach. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Dergachev, Valentin, Sherratt, Andrew, and Larina, Olga, 1991. Recent results of Neolithic research in Moldavia. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 10: 1–16.Google Scholar
Devoto, G., 1962. Origini Indoeuropee. Firenze.Google Scholar
Diamond, J., 1992. The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpazee. London: Vintage.Google Scholar
Diebold, A. R. Jr., 1987. Linguistic ways to prehistory. In Skomal, Susan Nacev and Polomé, Edgar C. (eds), Proto-Indo-European: The Archaeology of a Linguistic Problem: Studies in Honour of Marija Gimbutas. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man.Google Scholar
D'jakonov, I. M., 1982. O prarodine nositelej indojevropejskich dialektov I, II. Vestnik drevnej istorii 1982 (3): 3–30, 1982 (4):11–25.Google Scholar
Dolukhanov, Pavel M., 1979. Ecology and Economy in Neolithic Eastern Europe. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Dolukhanov, Pavel M., 1986. Natural environment and the holocene settlement pattern in the north-western part of the USSR. Fennoscandia Archaeologica 3: 3–16.Google Scholar
Dolukhanov, Pavel M., 1989. Cultural and ethnic processes in prehistory as seen through the evidence of archaeology and related disciplines. In Shennan, S. J., (ed.), Archaeological Approaches to Cultural Identity: 267–277. London: Unwin Hyman.Google Scholar
y'Edynak, G., 1978. Culture, diet and dental reduction in Mesolithic forager-fishers of Yugoslavia. Current Anthropology 19 (3): 616–617.Google Scholar
y'Edynak, G., 1989. Yugoslav Mesolithic dental reduction, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78: 17–36.Google Scholar
Ehret, C., 1988. Language change and the material correlates of language and ethnic shift. Antiquity 62: 564–574.Google Scholar
Emeneau, Murray B., 1956. India as a linguistic area. Language 32: 3–16.Google Scholar
Emeneau, Murray B., 1962. Brahui and Dravidian Comparative Grammar. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press (University of California Publications in Linguistics 27).Google Scholar
Emeneau, Murray B., 1980. Language and Linguistic Area. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Escalon de Fonton, M. and Lumley, Henri de, 1955. Quelques civilisations de la méditérranée septentrionale et leurs intercurrences. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 63: 504–517.Google Scholar
Gamkrelidze, T. V. and Ivanov, V. V., 1984. Indojevropejskij Jazyk i Indojevropejcy. Tbilisi.Google Scholar
Gellner, Ernst, 1987. Culture, Identity and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gimbutas, Marija, 1963. The Indo-Europeans: archaeological problems. American Anthropologist 65: 815–836.Google Scholar
Gimbutas, Marija, 1970. Proto-Indo-European culture: the Kurgan culture during the fifth, fourth and third millennia BC. In Cardona, G., Hoenigswald, H. M. and Senn, A. (eds), Indo-European and Indo-Europeans: 155–196. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Gimbutas, Marija, 1977. The first wave of Eurasian steppe pastoralists into Copper Age Europe. Journal of Indo-European Studies 5: 277–338.Google Scholar
Gimbutas, Marija, 1988. Book review of Archaeology and Language. The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, by Colin Renfrew. Current Anthropology 29 (3): 453–456.Google Scholar
Gindin, L. A., 1992. Prostranstvenno-khronologicheskie aspekty indoevropejskoi problemy i ‘karta predpolagaemykh prarodin shesti nostraticheskikh yazykov’ V. M. Illich-Svitycha . Voprosy Yazykoznaniya 6: 54–65.Google Scholar
Goodenough, W. H., 1970. The evolution of pastoralism and Indo-European origins. In Cardona, G., Hoenigswald, H. M., and Senn, A. (eds), Indo-European and Indo-Europeans: 253–266. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Green, Stanton and Perlman, Steven, 1985. The Archaeology of frontiers and Boundaries. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. H., 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Guglielmino, C. R., Piazza, A., Menozzi, P., and Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi. L., 1990. Uralic genes in Europe. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83: 57–68.Google Scholar
Guilaine, Jean, 1976. Premiers Bergers et Paysans de l'Occident Méditerranéen. Paris: Mouton.Google Scholar
Gupta, S. P., 1979. Archaeology of Soviet Central Asia and the Indian Borderlands. Delhi.Google Scholar
Hagelberg, Erica, 1995. Digging into our genes. Antiquity 69: 177–179.Google Scholar
Hamp, Eric P., 1987. The pig in ancient northern Europe. In Skomal, S. N. and Polomé, E. C. (eds), Proto-Indo-European: The Archaeology of a Linguistic Problem: 185–190. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man.Google Scholar
Harding, R. M., Rosing, F. W., and Sokal, R. R., 1990. Cranial measurements do not support Neolithization of Europe by demic expansion. HOMO 1990: 45–58.Google Scholar
Häusler, Alexander, 1992. Archäologie und Ursprung der Indogermanen. Das Altertum 38: 3–15.Google Scholar
Hencken, H., 1955. Indo-European languages and archaeology. American Anthropological Association 57 (6) part 3 (Memoir no. 84).Google Scholar
Hill, J. H., 1978. Language contact systems and human adaptations. Journal of Anthropological Research 34 (1): 1–26.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian (ed.), 1978. The Spatial Organisation of Culture. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian, 1982. The Present Past. London: Batsford.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian, 1990. The Domestication of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Kenneth, 1993. Human postcranial variation in the Ukrainian Mesolithic-Neolithic. Current Anthropology 34: 311–324.Google Scholar
Jakobson, Roman, 1938. On the theory of phonological associations among languages. In Keiler, A. R. (ed.), A Reader in Historical and Comparative Linguistics: 241–252. New York: Holt, Rinehardt and Winston.Google Scholar
Khazanov, A. M., 1984. Nomads and the Outside World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kiuan, L. 1983. Zum Ursprung der Indogermanen, Forschungen aus Linguistik, Prähistorie und Anthropologie. Bonn: Habelt.Google Scholar
Kortland, F., 1990. The spread of the Indo-Europeans. Journal of Indo-European Studies 18: 131–140.Google Scholar
Kossina, Gustav, 1902. Die indogermanische Frage archaeologisch beantwortet. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 34: 161–222.Google Scholar
Kossina, Gustav, 1911. Die Herkunft der Germanen. Zur Methode der Siedlungsarchäologie. Würzburg: Kabitzsch (Mannus-Bibliothek 6).Google Scholar
Kossina, Gustav, 1926. Ursprung und Verbreitung der Germanen in vor- und frühgeschichtlicher Zeit. Würzburg: Kabitzsch (Mannus-Bibliothek 6).Google Scholar
Krahe, Hans, 1951. Sprachverwandschaft im alten Europa. Heidelberg: Winter.Google Scholar
Krahe, Hans, 1957. Indogermanisch und Alteuropäisch. Saeculum 8 (1): 1–16.Google Scholar
Krantz, G. S., 1988. Geographical Development of European Languages. New York Peter Lang Publishing (American University Studies, series XI, Anthropology and Sociology 26).Google Scholar
Laplace, G., 1964. Les subdivisions du Leptolithique italien. Etude de typologie analytique. Bulloettino de Paletnologia Italiana 73: 25–62.Google Scholar
Lehmann, W. P., 1991. Novoje v indojevropejistieskich issledovanijach I, II. Vjaz 1990: 5–30; 1991:5–26.Google Scholar
Lewthwaite, James, 1986. The transition to food production: a Mediterranean perspective. In Zvelebil, M. (ed.), Hunters in Transition: 53–67. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Madsen, Torsten, 1986. Where did all the hunters go? Journal of Danish Archaeology 5: 229–247.Google Scholar
Makkay, J., 1987. The Linear Pottery and the early Indo-Europeans. In Skomal, S. N. and Polomé, E. C. (eds), Proto-Indo-European: The Archaeology of a Linguistic Problem: Studies in honor of Marija Gimbutas. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man.Google Scholar
Makkay, J., 1990. New aspects of the PIE and the PU/PFU homelands: contacts and frontiers between the Baltic and the Ural in the Neolithic. In Kerestes, L. and Maticsak, S. (eds), Congressus Septimus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum: 55–83. Debrecen.Google Scholar
Mallory, James P., 1973. A short history of the Indo-European problem, Journal of Indo-European Studies 1: 21–65.Google Scholar
Mallory, James P., 1989. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London and New York: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Malmer, Mats, 1962. Jungneolitische Studien. (Acta Archaeologica Lundensia 8°, 3).Google Scholar
Matyushin, G., 1986. The Mesolithic and Neolithic in the southern Urals and Central Asia. In Zvelebil, M. (ed.), Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Sodeties of Temperate Eurasia and their Transition to Farming: 133–150. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Meiklejohn, Christopher and Zvelebil, Marek, 1991. Health status of European populations at the agricultural transition and the implications for the adoption of farming. In Bush, H. and Zvelebil, M. (eds), Health in Past Societies: Biocultural Interpretations of Human Skeletal Remains in Archaeological Contexts: 129–145. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports (International Series 567).Google Scholar
Meillet, A., 1922. Les Dialectes Indo-Européens. 2nd edition. Paris: Librairie Ancienne Honore Champion. (Collection Linguistique de la Société de Linguistique de Paris, vol. 1) First published in 1908.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1967. K Počátkům Patriarchátu ve Strední Evropě. Praha: Academia.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1969. Economy of the Corded Ware cultures. Archaeolovické Rozhledy 21: 43–68.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evzen, 1971. Whither archaeology? Antiquity 45: 34–37.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evzen, 1973. Factors determining the variability of the Corded Ware culture. In Renfrew, C. (ed.), The Explanation of Culture Change: 725–730. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1982. Prehistoric migrations by infiltration. Archeologické rozhledy 34: 278–293.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1983. The demography of prehistoric cemeteries. Památky archeologické 74: 7–34.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1985. K Holocénu Komořanského Jezera. (On the Holocene period in the Komorany Lake area.) Památky archeologické 74: 9–70.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1986a. Nástin archeologické metody. (An outline of the archaeological method.) Archeologické rozhledy 38: 515–539.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1986b. Sidelní areály pravěkých zemědělců. (Settlement areas of prehistoric farmers.) Památky archeologické 77: 226–234.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1988. Book review of Archaeology and Language. The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, by Colin Renfrew. Current Anthropology 29 (3): 456–458.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Evžen, 1993. Archaeological Method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Neustupný, Jiiní, 1976. Archaeological Comments to the Indo-European Problem. Prague: Roma.Google Scholar
Nyggard, Sygne E., 1989. The Stone Age of northern Scandinavia: a review. Journal of World Prehistory 3: 71–116.Google Scholar
Piggot, Stuart, 1965. Ancient Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Pokorny, J., 1954. Die Indogermanische Spracheinheit in Alexander Randa, Handbuch der Weltgeschichte. Olten und Frieburg i. Br.: Walter Verlag.Google Scholar
Pokorny, J., 1959. Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bern.Google Scholar
Polomé, Edgar C., 1987. Who are the Germanic people? In Skomal, S. N. and Polomé, E. C. (eds), Proto-Indo-European: The Archaeology of a Linguistic Problem: 216–244. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man.Google Scholar
Price, T. Douglas, 1986. Affluent foragers of Mesolithic Southern Scandinavia. In Price, T. D. and Brown, J. A. (eds), Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers. The Emergence of Cultural Complexity: 341–360. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Price, T. Douglas, 1987. The Mesolithic of western Europe. Journal of World Prehistory 1: 225–332.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A. Colin, 1987. Archaeology and Language. The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A. Colin, 1988. Archaeology and language. The puzzle of Indo-European origins. Current Anthropology 29 (3):437–441 (précis).Google Scholar
Renfrew, A. Colin, 1989. The origins of Indo-European languages. Scientific American 1989: 82–90.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A. Colin, 1991. Before Babel: speculations on the origins of linguistic diversity. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1 (1): 3–23.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A. Colin, 1992. Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity. Man 27: 445–478.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A. Colin, 1994. World linguistic diversity. Scientific American 270 (1): 104–110.Google Scholar
Robb, John, 1993. A social prehistory of European languages. Antiquity 67 (257): 747–760.Google Scholar
Roberts, L., 1992. Using genes to track down Indo-European migrations. Science 257: 1346.Google Scholar
Rowlett, R. M., 1987. Grave wealth in the Horedenka group of sub-Carpathian Corded Ware. In Skomal, S. N. and Polomé, E. C. (eds), Proto-Indo-European: The Archaeology of a Linguistic Problem: 191–202. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man.Google Scholar
Rowley-Conwy, Peter, 1995. Making the first farmers younger: the west European evidence. Current Anthropology 36: 346–353.Google Scholar
Ruhlen, M., 1991. A Guide to the World's Languages vol. 1, Classiification with Postcript. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Safronov, V. A., 1989. Indojevropejskije Prarodiny. Gorkij: Volgo-Vjatskoye Knizhnoye izdatelstvo.Google Scholar
Schiffer, Michael B., 1972. Archaeological context and systemic context. American Anthropology 37: 156–165.Google Scholar
Schiffer, Michael B., 1976. Behavioral Archaeology. New York Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schleicher, A. 1863. Die Darwinische Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft. Weimar.Google Scholar
Schrader, O. 1890. Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples. London.Google Scholar
Schultz, W., 1935. Die Indogermanenfrage in der Vorgeschichtsforschung. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung 62: 184–198.Google Scholar
Schwantes, G., 1958. Die Indogermanen in Geschichte Schleswig Holstein. Neumunster: Karl Wachholtz Verlag.Google Scholar
Seger, H., 1936. Vorgeschichtforschung und Indogermanenproblem. In Arntz, Helmut (ed.), Germanen und Indogermanen. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.Google Scholar
Shennan, Stephen J., 1982. The emergence of hierarchical structure. In Renfrew, A. C. and Shennan, S., (eds), Ranking, Resource and Exchange: Aspects of the Archaeology of Early European Society: 9–12. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Shennan, Stephen J., 1989. Introduction: archaeological approaches to cultural identity. In Shennan, S. J. (ed.), Archaeological Approaches to Cultural Identity: 1–32. London: Unwin and Hyman.Google Scholar
Sherratt, Andrew G., 1981. Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution. In Hodder, I., Isaac, G., and Hammond, N. (eds), Pattern of the Past: Studies in honour of David Clarke: 261–305. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sherratt, Andrew G., 1982. Mobile resources: settlement and exchange in early agricultural Europe. In Renfrew, A. C. and Shennan, S. (eds), Ranking, Resources and Exchange: Aspects of the Archaeology of Early European Society: 13–26. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sherratt, Andrew G., 1990. The genesis of megaliths: monumentality, ethnicity and social complexity in Neolithic north-west Europe. World Archaeology 22 (2): 148–167.Google Scholar
Sherratt, Andrew G. and Sherratt, S., 1988. The archaeology of Indo-European: an alternative view. Antiquity 62: 584–595.Google Scholar
Shrire, C. (ed.) 1984. Past and Present in Hunter Gatherer Studies. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Smith, A. D., 1986. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Sokal, R. R., Jaquez, G. M., Oden, N. L., DiGiovanni, D., Falsetti, A. B., McGee, E., and Thomson, B. A., 1993. Genetic relationships of European populations reflect their ethnohistorical affinities. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 91: 55–70.Google Scholar
Sokal, R.R. and Livshits, G., 1993. Demographic variation of six dermatoglyphic traits in Eurasia. American Journal of Anthropology 90: 393–407.Google Scholar
Sokal, R. R., Oden, N. L., Legendre, P., Fortin, M.-J., Kim, J., and Vaudor, A., 1989. Genetic differences among language families in Europe. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 79: 489–502.Google Scholar
Sokal, R. R., Oden, N. L., and Thompson, B. A., 1992. Origins of the Indo-Europeans: genetic evidence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.SA. 89: 7669–7673.Google Scholar
Sokal, R. R., Oden, N. L., and Wilson, A. C., 1991. New genetic evidence supports the origin of agriculture in Europe by demic diffusion. Nature 351: 143–144.Google Scholar
Solberg, B., 1989. The Neolithic transition in southern Scandinavia: internal development or migration? Oxford Journal of Archaeology 8: 261–296.Google Scholar
Starostin, S. A., 1989. Sravnitalno-istorieskoje jazykoznanije i leksikostatistika. In Lingvistieskaja rekonstrukcija i drevnejaja istorija Vostoka, 1, 3–39. Moscow.Google Scholar
Telegin, Dimitri Y., 1987. Neolithic cultures of the Ukraine and adjacent areas and their chronology. Journal of World Prehistory 1: 307–331.Google Scholar
Telegin, Dimitri Y., 1986. Dereivka. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports (International Series 287).Google Scholar
Telegin, Dimitri Y. and Pothekina, Ina D., 1987. Neolithic Cemeteries and Populations in the Dnieper Basin. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports (International Series 383).Google Scholar
Thomas, Julian, 1987. Relations of production and social change in the Neolithic of north-west Europe. Man (n.s.) 22:405–430.Google Scholar
Thomas, Julian, 1991. Rethinking the Neolithic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Thomason, S. G. and Kaufman, T., 1988. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tovar, A., 1982. Die Indoeuropäisierung Westeuropas. (Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft, Vorträge und kleinere Schriften 28).Google Scholar
Troubetzkoy, P. N., 1928. Proposition 16. In Actes du Premier Congrès International de Linguistes, à la Haye, du 10–15 Avril, 1928: 17–18.Google Scholar
Trubachev, O. N., 1984. Jazykoznanie i etnogenez slavjan. Voprosy Jazykoznanija 2: 15–30; 3:18–29.Google Scholar
Veit, U., 1989. Ethnic concepts in German prehistory: a case study on the relationship between cultural identity and archaeological objectivity. (Trans. Shennan, D. S.) In Shennan, S. J. (ed.), Archaeological Approaches to Cultural Identity, 35–56. London: Unwin Hyman.Google Scholar
Vencl, Slavomil, 1982. K otázce zániku sběračsko-lovectých kultur. Archeologiché Rozhledy 34: 648–690.Google Scholar
Vogeun, C. and Vogelin, F., 1966. Map of North American Indian Languages. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Waehle, E., 1941. Zur ethnischen Deutung frühgeschichtlicher Kulturprovinzen. Grenzen der frühgeschichtlichen Erkenntnis, 1. Heidelberg: Winter (Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philologisch-historische Klasse. Jahrgang 1940–41, 2nd edn.).Google Scholar
Weinreich, U., 1953. Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton (reprinted 1968).Google Scholar
Whittle, Ausdair, 1985. Neolithic Europe: A Survey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wilus, Katherine J. and Bennett, K. D., 1994. The Neolithic transition – fact or fiction? Palaeoecological evidence from the Balkans. The Holocene 4: 326–330.Google Scholar
Zilhão, José, 1993. The spread of agro-pastoral economies across Mediterranean Europe: a view from the far west. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 6 (1): 5–63.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Kamil V., 1980. A plea for Nilgiri areal studies. International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 9 (1): 1–22.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Kamil V., 1990. Dravidian Linguistics: an Introduction. Pondicherry: Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Marek (ed.), 1986. Hunters in Transition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Marek, 1989. On the transition to farming in Europe, or what was spreading with the Neolithic: a reply to Ammerman 1989. Antiquity 63: 379–383.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Marek, 1993. Hunters or farmers? The Neolithic and Bronze Age societies of north-east Europe. In Chapman, J. and Dolukhanov, P. (eds), Cultural Transformations and Interactions in Eastern Europe: 146–162. Aldershot: Avebury.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Marek, in press. Hunting, gathering or husbandry? Management of food resources by the late Mesolithic communities of temperate Europe. In Campana, D. (ed.), Before Farming. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press (Masca Research Papers in Science and Archaeology).Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Marek and Dolukhanov, Pavel, 1991. The transition to farming in northern and eastern Europe. Journal of World Prehistory 5 (3): 233–278.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Marek and Rowley-Conwy, Peter, 1984. Transition to farming in northern Europe: a hunter-gatherer perspective. Norwegian Archaeological Review 17: 104–128.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, Marek and Zvelebil, Kamil V., 1988. Agricultural transition and Indo-European dispersals. Antiquity 62: 574–583.Google Scholar