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³ On the classical Marxist view see Brewer, Anthony, Marxist Theories of Imperialism (London, 1980), pp. 15–17.Google Scholar

⁴ See, for example, Bauer, Peter T., Dissent on Development (London, 1971), pp. 74–82 and 158–61,Google Scholar and the analysis of imperialism's role in Third World economic history by Smith, Tony, The Pattern of Imperialism (New York, 1981), pp. 50–84.Google Scholar

⁵ The vast literature on economic integration is surveyed in Machlup, Fritz, A History of Thought on Economic Integration (New York, 1977).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ The views of Andre Frank, Immanuel Wallerstein, and other neo-Marxists are summarized in Brewer, Marxist Theories, pp. 17–24.Google Scholar

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⁸ See, for example, Cameron, Rondo, France and the Economic Development of Europe. 1800–1914 (Chicago, 1965);Google ScholarKenwood, A. G. and Lougheed, A. L., The Growth of the International Economy, 1820–1980 (London, 1983);Google Scholar and Landes, David, The Unbound Promerheus (Cambridge, 1969).Google Scholar

⁹ See, for example, several contributions in Bairoch, Paul and Lévy-Leboyer, Maurice, eds., Disparities in Economic Development Since the Industrial Revolution (London, 1981);CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Williamson, Jeffrey, “Regional Inequality and the Process of National Development,” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 13, Supplement (July 1965).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹¹ On the comparative method see Thrupp, Sylvia L., “The Role of Comparison in the Development of Economic Theory,” this Journal, 17 (12. 1957), pp. 554–70;Google Scholar W. T. Easterbrook, “Long-Period Comparative Study: Some Historical Cases,” ibid., pp. 571–95; and Cameron, Rondo, “Comparative Economic History,” in Uselding, Paul, ed., Research in Economic History, Supplement I (Greenwich, Conn., 1977), pp. 287–305.Google Scholar

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¹⁴ Available data support these contrasting pictures. In 1774 GNP per capita was roughly the same in the American colonies and the United Kingdom. Jones, Alice Hanson, Wealth of a Nation to Be: The American Colonies on the Eve of the Revolution (New York, 1980), p. 68.Google Scholar By 1913 the level in the United States was 25 percent above that of the United Kingdom. Based on Maddison, Angus, Phases of Capitalist Development (New York, 1982), Tables 1.4, A2, and B2.Google Scholar For the Empire, GNP per capita was at best 30 percent below the United Kingdom in 1830 and barely 50 percent of the United Kingdom in 1913. Based on the controversial figures in Bairoch, Paul, “Europe's Gross National Product: 1800–1975,” Journal of European Economic History, 5 (Fall 1976), pp. 283, 286.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Income per capita in Hungary was roughly 70 percent that of Austria on the eve of World War I. Based on income data from Fellner, Friedrich, “Das Volkseinkommen Österreichs und Ungarns,” Sratistische Monatschrift, 21 (Vienna, 1917), p. 594Google Scholar and population statistics from Mitchell, B. R., European Historical Statistics, 1750–1970 (New York, 1975), Table B1, pp. 19 and 21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁶ Easterlin, Richard, “Regional Income Trends, 1840–1950,” in Harris, Seymour E., ed., American Economic History (New York, 1961), p. 528.Google Scholar Although poor by American standards, the South was rich compared to the rest of the world. Fogel, Robert and Engerman, Stanley, Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery (Boston, 1974), p. 250. On the eve of World War I its per capita income was perhaps 15–20 percent above the richest regions of the Habsburg Empire, the Alpine and Bohemian lands.Google Scholar Based on real GDP estimates for 1913 reported in Maddison, Phases, Table A3, converted to a per capita basis with population figures in ibid., Table B2 (for the United States) and in Mitchell, Historical Statistics, Table Bl, p. 19 (for Austria). My estimate assumes that southern income per capita was 55 percent of the American average and that Alpine and Bohemian land income per capita was 130 percent of the Austrian average. See Table 1 above and Easterlin, “Regional Incomes,” p. 528.

¹⁷ Summarized in Good, David F., The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire. 1750–1914 (Berkeley, 1984), pp. 14–24.Google Scholar

¹⁸ For a survey of the issues and evidence see Good, Economic Rise, chap. 2.Google Scholar For the underlying quantitative research see Komlos, John, The Habsburg Monarchy as a Customs Union (Princeton, 1983), chap. 3;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Rudolph, Richard, “The Pattern of Austrian Industrial Growth from the Eighteenth to the Early Nineteenth Century,” Austrian History Yearbook, 11 (1975), pp. 3–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁹ Based on time series data for urbanization in Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Part 1 (Washington, D. C., 1975), Series A172–94, p. 22,Google Scholar and for the agricultural labor force in Kuznets, Simon, Miller, Ann, and Easterlin, Richard, Population Redistribution and Economic Growth: United Stares, 1870–1950 (Philadelphia, 1960), vol. 2, Table A2.4, p. 82.Google Scholar

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²⁶ For 1913 the following ratios of exports to GNP can be computed: United States (.043); Habsburg Empire (.108); Germany (.193); and United Kingdom (.193). For the United States exports are from Hutchinson, “Exports to Foreign Countries,” Table I, p. 145, and GNP is the sum of Gross Regional Product estimates for U.S. regions in Hutchinson, “Exports to Foreign Countries,” Table B.6, p. 200. For the Habsburg Empire exports are from official government statistics as compiled by Scott Eddie and transmitted privately; GNP for Hungary is Fellner's estimate reported in Komlos, Customs Union, pp. 210–11;Google Scholar GNP for Austria from Kausel, Anton, “Österreichs volkseinkommen 1830 bis 1913,” in Geschichte und Ergebnisse der Zentralen amtlichen Statistik in Österreich (Vienna, 1979), p. 718.Google Scholar GNP for the Empire equals Austrian GNP plus Hungarian GNP. For Germany and the United Kingdom exports are from Mitchell, B. R., European Historical Statistics, 1750–1970 (New York, 1975), Table KI, pp. 783–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²⁹ See Good, Economic Rise, pp. 104–8, 116–19, 121–22.Google Scholar

³⁰ Davis, “Investment Market,” pp. 388–92; and James, “National Money Market,” p. 897.Google Scholar

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