¹ See Adams, W. and Dirlam, J. B., “Big Steel, Invention, and Innovation,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 80 (1966), 167–89;CrossRefGoogle ScholarMeans, G. C., Pricing Power and the Public Interest (New York, 1962);Google ScholarUlman, Lloyd, “The Union and Wages in Basic Steel: A Comment,” American Economic Review, 48 (1958), 408–26;Google Scholar and Mancke, R. B., “The American Iron Ore and Steel Industries: Two Essays” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1968).Google Scholar

² See Tiffany, A. Paul, “The Roots of Decline: Business-Government Interaction in the American Steel Industry, 1945–1960” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1983), pp. 79–118.Google Scholar

³ See U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Surplus Property of the Committee on Military Affairs and Industrial Reorganization Subcommittee of the Special Committee on Postwar Economic Policy and Planning, 79th Congress, 1st Session, Hearings, Joint, War Plants Disposal—Iron and Steel Plants (Washington, D.C., 1946).Google Scholar

⁴ See Oral History Interview with Bean, Louis H., p. 47, in Oral History Files, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, Independence, Missouri.Google Scholar

⁵ See U.S. Senate, Special Committee to Study Problems of American Small Business, 80th Congress, 1st Session, Hearings, , Problems of American Small Business, 4 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1947), pp. 587–701.Google Scholar

⁶ Ibid., pp. 988–94. Also see Sykes, Wilfred, “The Future of the Steel Industry,” in American Iron and Steel Institute, 1947 Yearbook (New York, 1947), pp. 68–83. Sykes, president of Inland Steel Corporation, was the industry's principal spokesman before the Senate committee, and in his AISI paper he developed his arguments more fully regarding steel consumption.Google Scholar

⁷ Drawn from Louis Bean's testimony before the Senators; see U.S. Senate, Problems of American Small Business, p. 1001.Google Scholar

⁸ See Hexner, E., “American Participation in the International Steel Cartel,” Southern Economic Journal, 8 (1941), 54–79,CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Lauderbaugh, R., “Business, Labor, and Foreign Policy: U.S. Steel, the International Steel Cartel, and Recognition of the Steel Workers Organizing Committee,” Politics and Society, 6 (1979), 433–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹ For examples of the Administration position, see Council of Economic Advisers, “Interagency Report on Steel and Essential Steelmaking Materials” (CEA, March 15, 1949), mimeo, in Council of Economic Advisers Papers, Box 22, Steel Folder, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Data used in these calculations are drawn from American Iron and Steel Institute, Annual Statistical Report (New York, various years).Google Scholar

¹¹ See, for example, Mullaney, T. E., “US Steel's Prices Increased $4 a Ton; An Inquiry Is Slated,” New York Times (December 16, 1949), p. 1, and U.S. Congress, Joint Committee on the Economic Report, 81st Congress, 2nd Session,Google ScholarHearings, , December 1949 Steel Price Increases (Washington, D.C., 1950).Google Scholar This was hardly an isolated example; see Tiffany, “Roots of Decline,” pp. 119–65.Google Scholar

¹² Perhaps the most noteworthy occasion on which this occurred was President Truman's 1949 State of the Union address, when he said that “if action by private industry fails to meet our needs” in steel production, he would authorize construction of federally owned mills. See Congressional Record, Vol. 95, Pt. I, 81st Congress, 1st Session (01 5, 1949), p. 75.Google Scholar

¹³ See Tiffany, “Roots of Decline,” pp. 166–209.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Data on the extent of U.S. aid to foreign steelmakers can be found in U.S. Senate, Committee on Finance, 90th Congress, 1st Session, Steel Exports (Washington, D.C., 1967), 31–62, 299–304.Google Scholar Aid to foreign steel represented 1.9 percent of total U.S. foreign aid over this span. For the comment by Bethlehem's president, see “Grace Calls Subsidy of Shipping Vital,” New York Times (October 28, 1949), p. 47.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See “Industry Gets 5-Year Write-Offs,” Iron Age, 166 (10 19, 1950), 95;Google Scholar“Wilson Puts the Brakes on Granting Certificates of Necessity for Expansion of Steel Industry,” Iron Age, 167 (03 8, 1951), 110–11;Google Scholar and U.S. Department of Commerce, National Production Authority, Historical Reports on Defense Production, Report No. 28, Iron and Steel (Washington, D.C., 1953).Google Scholar

¹⁶ See Marcus, M., Truman and the Steel Seizure Case (New York, 1977).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Tiffany, “Roots of Decline,” pp. 259–312.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See Diebold, W. Jr, The Schuman Plan (New York, 1959),Google Scholar and Rosen, M. J., “The Brussels Entente: Export Combination in the World Steel Market,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 106 (1958), 1079–1116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁹ American Iron and Steel Institute, “Statement of the American Iron and Steel Institute before the Commission on Foreign Economic Policy” (Washington, D.C., 12 2, 1953); a copy is located in CFEP: Records, 1953–1954 File, Box 19, Hearings-Presentations, AISI Folder, Eisenhower Presidential Library.Google Scholar

²⁰ See Baker, G. H., “Industry: Cooperates With Capitol,” Iron Age, 171 (06 18, 1953), 93,Google Scholar and Reagan, M. D., “The Business and Defense Services Administration, 1953–1957,” Western Political Quarterly, 14 (1961), 576–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²¹ For broader comment on Eisenhower's foreign economic policies, see Kaufman, B. I., Trade & Aid—Eisenhower's Foreign Economic Policy, 1953–1961 (Baltimore, 1982).Google Scholar On the Commerce Department proposal, see Egan, C. E., “Sheaffer Resigns as Commerce Aide; Reputed Astin Foe,” New York Times (09 19, 1953), pp. 1, 6,Google Scholar and U.S. House, Antitrust Subcommittee, Committee on the Judiciary, 84th Congress, 1st Session, Hearings, WOC's and Government Advisory Groups (Washington, D.C., 1955), p. 596.Google Scholar

²² See Tiffany, “Roots of Decline,” 313–64.Google Scholar

²³ See U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, Committee on the Judiciary, 85th Congress, 1st Session, Hearings, Administered Prices, Parts 2, 3, and 4 (Washington, D.C., 1957). These were the “Kefauver Committee” hearings.Google Scholar

²⁴ Data used in the calculations are drawn from AISI, Annual Statistical Report, various years.Google Scholar

²⁵ Steel, Story of a Shortage (1952, no author or publisher shown); a copy is located in the vertical File, Steel Industry and Trade Section, Truman Presidential Library.Google Scholar

²⁶ Adams and Dirlam, “Big Steel, Invention, and Innovation.”Google Scholar

²⁷ Industry arguments opposing early adoption of BOF are best summarized in Dilley, D. R. and McBride, D. L., “Oxygen Steelmaking—Fact vs. Folklore,” Iron and Steel Engineer, 44 (10. 1967), 131–52.Google Scholar

²⁸ See U.S. Department of Labor, Collective Bargaining in the Basic Steel Industry (Washington, D.C., 1961)Google Scholar, and Nagle, R. W., “Collective Bargaining in Basic Steel and the Federal Government, 1945–1960” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1978).Google Scholar

²⁹ See Tiffany, “Roots of Decline,” pp. 365–427.Google Scholar

³⁰ U.S. Department of Labor, Collective Bargaining, pp. 300–397.Google Scholar