Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-7drxs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-20T19:40:03.679Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Imperfect Competition and Anglo-German Trade Rivalry: Markets for Cotton Textiles before 1914

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2009

John C. Brown
John C. Brown
Affiliation:
Associate Professor of Economics, Department of Economics, Clark University, Worcester, MA 01610.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article reappraises export performance on international markets before World War I by examinnig the case of cotton textiles. The German industry expanded its market share from the 1850s to 1914 despite remaining a high-cost industry relative to Great Britain. Evidence from contemporary accounts and analysis of trade data from 1913 suggests that German success arose in part from the importance of monopolistic competition in export markets for finished cloth. Germany’s relative wealth, geographic position, and perhaps the intensive marketing efforts of its industry may have enabled it to counter the cost advantage of its British rival.

Their heads are still gay with crimson kerchiefs, but those kerchiefs do not come from Manchester.

—E. E. Williams

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Economic History , Volume 55 , Issue 3 , September 1995 , pp. 494 - 527
Copyright
Copyright © The Economic History Association 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aldcroft, , Derek, . “British Industry and Foreign Competition, 1875–1914.” In The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition, edited by Derek, Aldcroft, 11–36. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1968.Google Scholar
Aldcroft, , Derek, . “The Entrepreneur and the British Economy.” In The British Economy: 1870–1939, edited by Derek, Aldcroft and Harry, Richardson, 141–67. London: Macmillan, 1969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Austria-Hungary, , Dienst, Handelstatistisches. Statistik des Auswärtigen Handels des österreichischen-ungarischen Zollgebietes im Jahre 1913. Vienna: 1914.Google Scholar
Balassa, , Bela, , and Bauwens, Luc. “Intra-Industry Specialisation in a Multi-Country and Multi-Industry Framework.” The Economic Journal 97, no. 338 (1987): 923–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balassa, , Bela, , and Bauwens, Luc. “The Determinants of Intra-European Trade in Manufactured Goods.” European Economic Review 32, no. 7 (1988): 1421–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateman, , Alfred, and Fountain, H., “The Import and Export Statistics of Various Countries,” Bulletin de I’Institut international de Statistique 15, no. 2 (1906): 219–39.Google Scholar
Beer, , Joseph, John. The Emergence of the German Dye Industry. Champaign-Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1959.Google Scholar
Belgium, . Ministère des Finances. Tableau Général du Commerce avec les Pays étrangers (1886 and 1913). Brussels: 1887 and 1914.Google Scholar
Bergstrand, , H., Jeffrey “The Generalized Gravity Equation, Monopolistic Competition, and the Factor-Proportions Theory in International Trade.” Review of Economics and Statistics 71, no. 1 (02, 1989), pp. 143–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bondi, , Gerhard, . Deutschlands Aussenhandel, 1815–1870. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1958.Google Scholar
Brazil, . Directoria de Estatistica Commercial. Comercio Exterior do Brasil: 1913–1914. Rio de Janeiro: 1914.Google Scholar
Bremen, . Bureau für Bremisches Statistik. “Zur Statistik des Schiffs- und Warenverkehrs im Jahre 1883.” Jahrbuch für Bremische Statistik 1 (1884).Google Scholar
Brown, , C., John “Market Organization, Protection, and Vertical Integration: German Cotton Textiles before 1914.” this JOURNAL 52, no. 2. (1992): 339–52.Google Scholar
Bienengräber, , Alfred, . Statistik des Verkehrs und Verbrauchs im Zollverein für die Jahre 1842–1864. Berlin: Alexander Duncker, 1868.Google Scholar
Bucheim, , Christoph, . “Germany on the World Market at the End of the 19th Century: Successful Supplier of Consumer Related Manufactures.” German Yearbook on Business History, 1985 (1986): 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canada. Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Report of the Department of Trade and Commerce for the Fiscal Year ended March, 1914. Ottawa: 1914.Google Scholar
Chandler, , Alfred, . Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, , Gregory, . “Why Isn’t the Whole World Developed? Lessons from the Cotton Mills.” this JOURNAL 47, no. 1 (1987): 147–73.Google Scholar
Clark, , Graham, W. A.. Cotton Fabrics in Middle Europe. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 24. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1908Google Scholar
Clark, , Graham, W. A.. The Cotton Textile Cotton Trade in the Turkish Empire, Greece, and Italy. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 18. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1908.Google Scholar
Clark, , Graham, W. A.. Cotton Goods in Latin America, Part 1. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 31. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1909.Google Scholar
Clark, , Graham, W. A.. Cotton Goods in Latin America, Part 2. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 36. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1910.Google Scholar
“Commerce de la France Avec la Suisse pendant les Onze Années 1851–1861.” Statistique de La Suisse vol. 4 (1863).Google Scholar
Copeland, , Melvin, . The Cotton Manufacturing Industry of the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1912.Google Scholar
Crafts, N. F. R. “Revealed Comparative Advantage in Manufacturing, 1899–1950.” Journal of European Economic History 18, no.1 (1989): 127–37.Google Scholar
Crafts, N. F. R. and Thomas, Mark. “Comparative Advantage in U.K. Manufacturing Trade, 1910–1935.” Economic Journal, 96, no. 383 (1986): 629–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denmark, . Statistike Departement. Danmarks Vareindførsel og Udførsel I Året 1913. Copenhagen: 1914.Google Scholar
Deardorff, , V., Alan “Testing Trade Theories and Predicting Trade Flows.” In Handbook of International Economics, vol. 1, edited by Jones, R. W. and Kenen, P. B., 467–517. Amsterdam and New York: North Holland, 1984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dehn, R. M. R.The German Cotton Industry. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1913.Google Scholar
Denkschrift über die Frage: Bedürfen unsere Baumwollspinnereien hüheren Schutzzoll und die zu exportierenden Baumwollen-Stuhlwaren einen Rü;ckzoll? Gladbach: Boehmer, 1849.Google Scholar
Dey, , Wolfgang, . “Die Entstehung und Entwicklung der Augsburger Textilindustrie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der weltwirtschaftlichen Beziehungen.” Ph.D. diss., University of Munich, 1947.Google Scholar
Dixit, , K., Avinash and Norman, Victor. “Product Differentiation and Intraindustry Trade.” In Imperfect Competition and International Trade, edited by Gene, M Grossman, 217–228. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992.Google Scholar
The Economist, various dates.Google Scholar
Elbers, , Wilhelm, . Hundert Jahre Baumwolltextilindustrie. Braunschweig: Viehweg and Sohn, 1922.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellison, , Thomas, . The Cotton Trade of Great Britain. New York: Adam Kelly, 1968. First published 1886.Google Scholar
Estevadeordal, , Antoni, . “Historical Essays on Comparative Advantage.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1993.Google Scholar
Farnie, , Douglas, . The English Cotton Industry and the World Market. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Federico, , Giovanni, and Tena, Antonio. “On the Accuracy of Foreign Trade Statistics (1909–1935): Morgenstern Revisited.” Explorations in Economic History 28, no. 3(1991): 259–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
France. Direction Générale des Douanes. Tableau Général du Commerce de La France (1853, 1881 and 1913). Paris: 1854, 1882, and 1914.Google Scholar
Gebauer, , Heinrich, . Die Volkswirtschaft im Königreich Sachsen: Die Baumwollindustrie, Vols. II and III. Dresden: Wilhelm Baensch, 1893.Google Scholar
Germany. Statistisches Reichsamt. Statistik des Deutschen Reiches (Auswä;rtiger Handel). New Series, 9 and 270. Berlin: 1884 and 1914.Google Scholar
Girault, , Arthur, . The Colonial Tariff Policy of France. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1916.Google Scholar
Good, , David, . “The Economic Lag of Central and Eastern Europe: Income Estimates for the Habsburg Successor States, 1870–1910.” this JOURNAL 54, no. 4 (1994): 869–91.Google Scholar
Gothein, , Georg, . Der deutsche Aussenhandel. Berlin: Siemroth and Troschel, 1901.Google Scholar
Hamburg, . Handelsstatistisches Bureau. Tabellarische Übersichten des Hamburgischen Handels im Jahre 1883. Hamburg: 1884.Google Scholar
Hansemann, , Gustav, . Die wirtschaftliche Verhältnisse des Zollvereins. Berlin: Georg Stilke, 1863.Google Scholar
Hanson, John R. II. Trade in Transition: Exports from the Third World, 1840–1900. New York: Academic Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Hanson, John R. II. “Third World Incomes before World War I: Some Comparisons.” Explorations in Economic History 25, no. 3 (1988): 323–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, John R. II. “Third World Incomes before World War I: Some Further Evidence.” Explorations in Economic History 28, no. 3 (1991): 367–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hause, J. M.English Methods of Dyeing, Finishing, and Marketing Cotton Goods. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 56. Washington: GPO, 1912.Google Scholar
Helpman, , Elhanan, . “Monopolistic Competition in Trade Theory.” Princeton Special Papers in International Finance no. 16 (1990).Google Scholar
Helpman, , Elhanan, and Krugman, Paul. Market Structure and Foreign Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Higgins, , Sydney, . Dyeing in Germany and America. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1907.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, , G., WaltherDas Wachstum der deutschen Wirtschaft. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1965.Google Scholar
“Indien als Absatzgebiet für Textilwaren.” Leipziger Monatschrift für die Textilindustrie 27, Spezial Nummer (1912): 54–55.Google Scholar
Italy, . Ministero della Finanze. Movimento Commerciale del Regno d’Italia (1913), vol. 1. Rome: Tipigraphia Nazionale, 1914.Google Scholar
Jahresbericht der Handels- und Gewerbekämmer Württembergs. 1857–1878.Google Scholar
Jahresbericht des Handels- und Gewerbekammers für Schwaben und Neuburg. 1899–1900.Google Scholar
Jahresbericht des Handels- und Gewerbekammers: Stuttgart. 1875–1913.Google Scholar
Jahresbericht für die Stadt Münster und die Kreise Münster, Beckum, Warendorf, Tecklenburg, und Burgsteinfurt. 1896–1907.Google Scholar
Jakobs, , Gustav, . Die deutschen Textilzölle im Neunzehnten Jahrhundert. Braunschweig: Viehweg and Sohn, 1907.Google Scholar
Japan. Bureau of Customs. Annual Return of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of Japan: 1910–1912. Tokyo: 1913.Google Scholar
Kenwood, A. G. and Lougheed, A. L.. The Growth of the International Economy: 1820–1990, 3rd edition. London and New York: Routledge, 1992.Google Scholar
Kertesz, , Adolf, . Die Textilindustrie sämtlicher Staaten. Braunschweig: F. Viehweg, 1917.Google Scholar
Kirchain, , Gunther, . Das Wachstum der deutschen Baumwollindustrie. New York: Arno Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Kollmer, , Gert, . “Zur Rolle der Banken in der württembergischen Textilindustrie in der Zeit des Deutschen Kaiserreichs.” Zeitschrift für württembergischen Landesgeschichte 47 (1988): 399–56.Google Scholar
Krugman, , Paul, . “Industrial Organization and International Trade.” In Handbook of Industrial Organization, vol. 2, edited by Schmalensee, R. and Willig, R. D., Amsterdam: North Holland, 1989.Google Scholar
Lancaster, , Kelvin, . “Intra-Industry Trade under Perfect Monopolistic Competition.” Journal of International Economics 10, no. 2 (1980): 151–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landauer, , Edgar, . Handel und Produktion in der Baumwollindustrie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der lohnindustriellen Organisation. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1912.Google Scholar
Landes, , David, . The Prometheus Unbound: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Lazonick, , William, . “The Cotton Industry.” In The Decline of the British Economy, edited by Bernard, Elbaum and William, Lazonick, 18–50. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Lazonick, , William, and Mass, William. “The Performance of the British Cotton Industry.” Research in Economic History. 9 (1984): 1–44.Google Scholar
Lazonick, , William, and Mass, William. “The British Cotton Industry and International Competitive Advantage: The State of the Debate.” In International Competition and Strategic Response in the Textile Industries since 1870, edited by Mary, B. Rose, 9–65. London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1991.Google Scholar
Linder, , Burenstam, Staffan. An Essay on Trade and Transformation. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1961.Google Scholar
Maddison, , Angus, . The World Economy in the Twentieth Century. New York: OECD Development Center, 1989.Google Scholar
Mährlen, , Johann, . Die Darstellung und Verarbeitung der Gespinnste und die Papierfabrikation im Königreich Württemberg (Nach dem Stande des Jahres 1858). Stuttgart: Blum and Vogel, 1861.Google Scholar
Maizels, , Alfred, . Industrial Growth and World Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963.Google Scholar
Marrison, A. J. “Great Britain and her Rivals in the Latin American Cotton Piece Goods Market.” In Great Britain and Her World: 1750–1914, edited by Barrie, M. Ratcliffe, 309-48. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975.Google Scholar
Meerwein, , Georg, . Die Entwicklung der Chemnitzer beziehungsweise Sächsischen Baumwollspinnerei. Berlin: : Emil Eberling, 1914.Google Scholar
Messerlin, , Patrick, and Becuwe, Stephane. “Intra-Industry Trade in the Long Run: The French Case, 1850–1913.” In Imperfect Competition and International Trade, edited by David, Greenaway and Tharakan, P. K. M., 191–215. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Mexico. Dirección General de Estadistica. Importación y Exportación de la República Mexicana: Año de 1907. Mexico City: 1910.Google Scholar
Mitchell, B. R.British Historical Statistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Netherlands. Department von Innenlandsche Zaken. Statistisch Jaarboeke voor het Koningrijke der Nederlanden. Amsterdam: 1853.Google Scholar
Netherlands. Statistike Institut der Vereenigung voor de Statistiek in Nederland. Jaarcijfers over 1887 en vorige Jaren. 41 (1888).Google Scholar
Nicholas, , J., Stephen “The Overseas Marketing Performance of British Industry, 1870–1914.” Economic History Review, Second Series 37, no. 4 (1984): 489–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in Spain and Portugal. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 46. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1911.Google Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in Italy. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 48. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912.Google Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in Russia. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 51. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912.Google Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in the Balkan States. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 53. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912.Google Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in Turkey U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 54, Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912.Google Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in the Red Sea Markets. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 74. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1913.Google Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in British East Africa, Uganda, Zanzibar, and German East Africa. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 80. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914.Google Scholar
Odell, , Ralph, . Cotton Goods in South Africa. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 83. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914.Google Scholar
O’Rourke, , Kevin, and G. Williamson, Jeffrey. “Late Nineteenth-Century Anglo-American Factor-Price Convergence: Were Heckscher and Ohlin Right?” this JOURNAL 54, no. 4 (1994): 892–917.Google Scholar
Ottoman, Empire. Direction des Contributions Indirectes. Statistique du Commerce Extérieur de l’Empire Ottoman de l’Anée 1327 (1912). Constantinople: 1913.Google Scholar
Pamuk, , Sevket, . “The Decline and Resistance of Ottoman Cotton Textiles.” Explorations in Economic History 23, no. 2 (1986): 205–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pamuk, , Sevket, . The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism: 1820–1913. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Pollard, , Sydney. The Peaceful Conquest. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Pollard, , Sydney. Britain’s Prime and Britain’s Decline. London: E. Arnold, 1989.Google Scholar
Polnauer, , Alex, . Le Régime Douanier Egyptien. Paris: Jouve and Co., 1926.Google Scholar
Portugal, Minestérios das Finanças. Comércio e Navegaçāo Ano de 1912. Lisbon: 1914.Google Scholar
Pratt, , Ewing, Edward. Cotton Textiles: International Trade and Merchandising Methods. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Miscellaneous Series, No. 58. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1917.Google Scholar
Reichsenquête für die Baumwolle- und Leinenindustrie. Statistische Ermittlungen. Berlin: Julius Sittenfeld,1879.Google Scholar
Reichsenquête für die Baumwolle- und Leinenindustrie. Stenographische Protokolle. Berlin: Julius Sittenfeld, 1879.Google Scholar
Richardson, , Harry, . “Over-commitment in Britain before 1930.” In The British Economy, 1870–1939, edited by Derek, Aldcroft and Harry, Richardson, 190–218. London: Macmillan, 1969.Google Scholar
Russia. Department of Customs, Obzorwnieschniej torgowli Rossij(1913). Moscow: 1914.Google Scholar
Sandberg, , Lars, . Lancashire in Decline. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press: 1974.Google Scholar
Schuren, , Reinhard, . Staat und Ländliche Industrialisierung: Sozialer Wandel in Zwei Döfern einer deutsch-niederländischen Textilgewerberegion, 1830–1914. Dortmund: Gesellschaft für westfälische Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 1985.Google Scholar
Schmid, K.Die Entwicklung der Hofer Baumwollindustrie: 1432–1913. Lepzig: A. Deicherstsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1923.Google Scholar
Schützger, , Heinrich, . “Die Oberbadische Baumwollindustrie von ihrem Anfang bis zum Jahre 1914.” Ph.D. diss., University of Tübingen, 1922.Google Scholar
Schulze-Gävernitz, , Gerhard, . Der Groβbetrieb, ein wirtschaftlicher und socialer Fortschritt. Leipzig: Duncker and Humblot, 1892.Google Scholar
Shadwell, , Arthur, . England, Deutschland, und Amerika. Eine vergleichende Studie über ihrer industriellen Leistungsfähigkeit. Berlin: Carl Heymann, 1908.Google Scholar
Simonetti, , Theo, . “Die Entwicklung der Baumwollindustrie des Münsterlandes im Neunzehnten und in den ersten Jahren des Zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts.” Ph.D. diss., University of Münster, 1920.Google Scholar
Snider, , E., Guy, Selling in Foreign Markets. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Miscellaneous Series, No. 81. Washington, D.C.: GPO,1919.Google Scholar
Switzerland, . Oberzolldirektion, . Statistik des Waarenverkehrs der Schweiz mit dem Auslande (1890 and 1912). Bern: 1891 and 1913.Google Scholar
Temin, , Peter, . “The Relative Decline of the British Steel Industry, 1880–1913.” In Industrialization in Two Systems, edited by Henry, Rosovsky, 130–55. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1966.Google Scholar
Tilly, , Richard, . Vom Zollverein zum Industriestaat. Berlin: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1990.Google Scholar
Tucker, W. A.Textile Markets of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 158. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1918.Google Scholar
Twomey, , Michael, . “Employment in Nineteenth Century Indian Textiles.” Explorations in Economic History 20, no. 1 (1983): 37–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Kingdom. Board of Trade. Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom. London: 1853–1913.Google Scholar
United Kingdom. Board of Trade. Statistical Tables Relating to Foreign Countries. Sessional Papers 52 (1854–1855); 16 (1857(I)); 40 (1857(II)); 58 (1857–1858); 31(1859), 16 (1861), 57 (1862).Google Scholar
United Kingdom. Board of Trade. Foreign and Colonial Import Duties, Parts I and II. London: 1882.Google Scholar
United Kingdom. Board of Trade. Statistical Abstract for the Several Colonies and other Possessions of the United Kingdom: 1882–1896. London: 1897.Google Scholar
United Kingdom. Board of Trade. Statement of the Rates of Import Duties: 1912. London: 1912.Google Scholar
United Kingdom. Board of Trade. Colonial Import Duties: 1912. London: 1912.Google Scholar
United Kingdom. Foreign Office. Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual Series. nos. 4758 (Venezuela, 1909–1910) and 4673 (Romania, 1910).Google Scholar
United Kingdom. India Office. Statistical Abstract Relating to India from 1840–1865. Sessional Papers 72 (1867).Google Scholar
United Kingdom. India Office. Tables Relating to the Trade of British India with British Possessions and Foreign Countries: 1909–1914. Sessional Papers 49 (1914–1916).Google Scholar
United Nations. Statistical Office. Commodity Trade Statistics Series D 42. New York: 1992.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of Statistics. Commerce and Navigation of the United States. Washington: GPO, 1853–1860, 1883 and 1913–1914.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Tariff Systems of South American Countries. Tariff Series No. 34. Washington: GPO, 1916.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of State. Import and Export Tariff Laws of Foreign Countries. Washington: GPO, 1884.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of State. Reports from the Consuls of the United States on the Cotton and Woolen Mills of Europe. Washington: GPO, 1883.Google Scholar
U.S. Tariff Commission, Colonial Tartf Policies. Washington: GPO, 1922.Google Scholar
Van, der Eng, Pierre, . “The Real Domestic Product of Indonesia, 1880–1989.” Explorations in Economic History 29, no. 3 (1992): 343–73.Google Scholar
Von, Borries, Bodo, . Deutschlands Aussenhandel: 1836–1856. Stuttgart: G. Fischer, 1970.Google Scholar
Watanabe, , Hisashi, . “Comment.” In The Textile Industry and Its Business Climate, edited by Akio, Okochi and Shinichi, Yonekawa, 135–37. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Williams, E. E.Made in Germany. London: William Heineman, 1896.Google Scholar
Wood, , Henry, . The History of Wages in the Cotton Industry. London: Sherratt and Hughes, 1910.Google Scholar
Wright, , Gavin, . “The Origins of American Industrial Success, 1879–1910.” The American Economic Review 80, no. 4 (1990): 651–68.Google Scholar