Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T06:08:59.677Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Globalization, Immigration, and Lewisian Elastic Labor in Pre–World War II Southeast Asia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 March 2007

Gregg Huff  and
Giovanni Caggiano
Gregg Huff
Affiliation:
Reader, Department of Economics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8RT, UK. E-mail: [email protected].
Giovanni Caggiano
Affiliation:
Lecturer, Department of Economics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8RT, UK. E-mail: [email protected]..
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Between 1880 and 1939 Burma, Malaya, and Thailand received inflows of migrants from India and China comparable in size to European immigration in the New World. This article examines the forces that lay behind migration to Southeast Asia and asks if experience there bears out Lewis's unlimited labor supply hypothesis. We find that it does and, furthermore, that immigration created a highly integrated labor market stretching from South India to Southeastern China. Emigration from India and China and elastic labor supply are identified as important components of Asian globalization before the Second World War.

Type
ARTICLES
Information
The Journal of Economic History , Volume 67 , Issue 1 , March 2007 , pp. 33 - 68
Copyright
© 2007 The Economic History Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adas Michael. The Burma Delta. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1974.
Andrew E. J. L. Indian Labour in Rangoon. London: Oxford University Press, 1933.
Andrus J. R. Burmese Economic Life. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1948.
Basu Kaushik. Analytical Development Economics: The Less Developed Economy Revisited. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997.
Bauer P. T. The Rubber Industry. London: Longmans, Green, 1948.
Baxter James. Report on Indian Immigration. Rangoon: Superintendent Government Printing and Stationary, 1941.
Becher H. M. “Mining in the Malay Peninsula.” Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy 1 (1892–93): 78–102.Google Scholar
Bennison J. J. Report of an Enquiry into the Standard and Cost of Living of the Working Classes in Rangoon. Rangoon: Superintendent Government Printing and Stationary, 1928.
Bernardelli H. “New Zealand and Asiatic Migration.” Population Studies 6, no. 1 (1952): 39–54.Google Scholar
Blythe W. L. Methods and Conditions of Employment of Chinese Labour in the Federated Malay States. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer, 1938.
Blythe W. L. “Historical Sketch of Chinese Labour in Malaya.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 20, no. 1 (1947): 64–114.Google Scholar
Brandt Loren, “Chinese Agricultural and the International Economy, 1870s–1930s: A Reassessment.” Explorations in Economic History 22, no. 2 (1985): 168–93.Google Scholar
Brandt Loren. Commercialization and Agricultural Development: Central and Eastern China 1870–1937. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Brazil. O Brasil em Numeros Apendice do “Anuario Estatistico do Brasil – 1960.” Rio de Janeiro: IBGE- Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, 1960.
Buck John L. Land Utilization in China. London: Humphrey Milford, 1937.
Buck John L. Land Utilization in China, Statistics. London: Humphrey Milford, 1937.
Burma. Report on the Administration of Burma, annual series, 1868/69–1935/36. Rangoon: Office of the Superintendent, Government Printing and Stationery.
Burma. Report on the Working of the Indian Factories Act in Burma, annual series, 1897–1939. Rangoon: Office of the Superintendent, Government Printing and Stationery.
Burma. Quniquennial Wages Census in Urban and Rural Areas in Burma, 1916. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing and Stationery, Burma, 1917.
Burma. Office of the Chief Collector of Customs, Annual Statement of the Sea-Borne Trade and Navigation of Burma, annual series, 1912–1913, 1922–1923. Rangoon: Office of the Superintendent, Government Printing.
Caves Richard E. “‘Vent for Surplus’ Models of Trade and Growth.” In Trade, Growth and the Balance of Payments, edited by Robert E. Baldwin, et al., 95–115. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965.
Chen Ta. Chinese Migrations, with Special Reference to Labor Conditions. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, 1923.
Chen Ta. Emigrant Communities in South China. London: Oxford University Press, 1939.
Cheng Siok-Hwa. The Rice Industry of Burma 1852–1940. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1968.
Chiang Hai Ding. A History of Straits Settlements Foreign Trade. Singapore: National Museum, Singapore, 1978.
China, Imperial Maritime Customs. Decennial Reports on the Trade, Industries, etc of the Ports Open to Foreign Commerce [variously titled] decennial series 1892–91 to 1922–31. Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.
China, Imperial Maritime Customs. Returns of Trade and Trade Reports [variously titled], annual series. 1879–1939. Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.
Chou Shun-Hsin. The Chinese Inflation 1937–1949. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.
Creutzberg P., Ed. Changing Economy of Indonesia. Vol. 5: National Income. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979.
Davis Kingsley. The Population of India and Pakistan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951.
Diaz Alejandro Carlos F. Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970.
Dodge Nicholas N., “Population Estimates for the Malay Peninsula in the Nineteenth Century, with Special Reference to the East Coast States.” Population Studies 34, no. 3 (1980): 437–75.Google Scholar
Dowrick Steve, and J. Bradford DeLong. “Globalization and Convergence.” In Globalization in Historical Perspective, edited by Michael D. Bordo, Alan M. Taylor, and Jeffrey G. Williamson, 191–220. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
Doyle Patrick, Tin Mining in Larut. London: E. & F. N. Spon, 1879.
Drabble J. H. Malayan Rubber: The Inter-War Years. London: Macmillan, 1991.
Federated Malay States Railways. Fifty Years of Railways in Malaya, 1885–1935. Kuala Lumpur: Federated Malay States Railways, 1935.
Feeny David. The Political Economy of Productivity: Thai Agricultural Development 1880–1975. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982.
Feeny David. “Extensive Versus Intensive Agricultural Development: Induced Public Investment in Southeast Asia, 1900–1940.” This Journal 43, no. 3 (1983): 687–704.Google Scholar
Feeny David. “The Decline of Property Rights in Man in Thailand, 1880–1913.” This Journal 49, no. 2 (1989): 285–96.Google Scholar
Feeny David. “The Decline of Corvée and Slavery in Thailand, 1782–1913.” In Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia, edited by Martin A. Klein, 83–111. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993.
Fei John C. H., and Gustav Ranis. Growth and Development from an Evolutionary Perspective. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1997.
Feinstein Charles H. “Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution.” This Journal 58, no. 3 (1998): 625–58.Google Scholar
Figart David M. The Plantation Rubber Industry in the Middle East. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1925.
Findlay Ronald. Trade and Specialization. Harmondsworth, Mddx.: Penguin, 1970.
Freedman Maurice. Chinese Family and Marriage in Singapore. London: H.M.S.O., 1957.
Freedman Maurice. Lineage Organization in Southeastern China. London School of Economics Monographs on Social Anthropology no. 18. London, Athlone Press, 1958.
Furnivall J. S. “Industrial Agriculture.” Journal of the Burma Research Society 48, no. 1 (1965): 87–97. This article was reprinted from a 1920 pamphlet.Google Scholar
Gamble Sidney D. “Daily Wages of Unskilled Chinese Laborers 1807–1902.” Far Eastern Quarterly 3, no. 1 (1943): 41–73.Google Scholar
Gould J. D. “European Inter-Continental Emigration 1815–1914: Patterns and Causes.” Journal of European Economic History 8 (1979): 593–679.Google Scholar
Greene William H. Econometric Analysis. 5th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Gullick J. M. Indigenous Political Systems of Western Malaya. London: Athlone Press, 1988.
Harris J. R., and M. P. Todaro. “Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis.” American Economic Review 60, no. 1 (1970): 126–42.Google Scholar
Harley C. Knick. “A Review of O'Rourke and Williamson's Globalization and History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth Century Atlantic Economy.” Journal of Economic Literature 38, no. 4 (2000): 926–35.Google Scholar
Harvey Andrew C. Forecasting, Structural Time Series Models and the Kalman Filter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Hatton Timothy J. “A Model of U.K. Immigration, 1870–1913.” Review of Economics and Statistics 77, no. 3 (1995): 407–15.Google Scholar
Hatton Timothy. J., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. “After the Famine: Emigration from Ireland, 1850–1913.” This Journal 53, no. 3 (1993): 575–600.Google Scholar
Hatton Timothy. J., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. “Latecomers to Mass Immigration: The Latin Experience.” In Migration and the International Labor Market, 1850–1939, edited by Timothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, 55–71. London: Routledge, 1994.
Hatton Timothy. J., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. The Age of Mass Migration: Causes and Economic Impact. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Hatton Timothy. J., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. Global Migration and the World Economy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005.
Hlaing U Aye. “Trends of Economic Growth and Income Distribution in Burma, 1870–1940.” Journal of the Burma Research Society 47, no. 2 (1964): 89–148.Google Scholar
Hlaing U Aye. A Study of the Economic Development of Burma, 1870–1940. Rangoon: Department of Economics, University of Rangoon, 1964.
Hsiao Liang-lin. China's Foreign Trade Statistics, 1864–1949. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974.
Hsu Madeline Yuan-yin. Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration between the United States and South China, 1882–1943. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.
Huff W. G. The Economic Growth of Singapore: Trade and Development in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
India. Census of India, 1901. Vol. 15. Madras. Part 1. Report by W. Francis and Part 2. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press, 1902.
India. Census of India, 1911. Vol. 12. Madras. Part 1. Report by J. Chartres Molony. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press, 1912.
India. Census of India, 1921. Vol. 10. Burma. Part 1. Report by S. G. Grantham. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing, 1923.
India. Census of India, 1921. Vol. 13. Madras. Part 1. Report by G. T. Boag and Part 2. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press, 1922.
India. Report of the Agent of the Government of India in Malaya, annual series 1926–1939/40. Calcutta: Government of India Central Publication Branch.
India. Census of India, 1931. Vol. 1. India. Part 1. Report by J. H. Hutton. Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1933.
India. Census of India, 1931. Vol. 11. Burma. Part 1. Report by J. J. Bennison. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing and Stationary, 1932.
India. Census of India, 1931. Vol. 14. Madras. Part 1. Report by M. W. M. Yeatts and Part 2. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press, 1932.
India. Department of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, Annual Statement of the Sea-borne Trade of British India, 1879/80–1939/40. Variously published Calcutta or Delhi: Government of India, Central Publications Branch or Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing (both Calcutta) and Manager of Publications (Delhi).
India. Department of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, Index Numbers of Indian Prices 1861–1931. Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1933.
India. Director-General of Commercial Intelligence. Prices and Wages in India, annual series 1902–1923. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing.
Indonesia, Central Bureau of Statistics. “The Living Conditions of Municipally Employed Coolies in Batavia in 1937.” Translated and published in The Indonesian Town: Studies in Urban Sociology, edited by W. F. Wertheim, 85–224. The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1958.
Ingram James C. “Thailand's Rice Trade and the Allocation of Resources.” In The Economic Development of South-East Asia, edited by C. D. Cowan, 102–26. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1964.
Ingram James C. Economic Change in Thailand 1850–1970. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1971.
Jackson R. N. Immigrant Labour and the Development of Malaya, 1786–1920. Kuala Lumpur: Federation of Malaya: Government Press, 1961.
Kakizaki Ichiro. Laying the Tracks: The Thai Economy and its Railways 1885–1935. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, 2005.
Kaur Amarjit. “The Impact of Railroads on the Malayan Economy, 1874–1941.” Journal of Asian Studies, 39, no. 4 (1980): 693–710.Google Scholar
Kelly Allen C., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. “Writing History Backwards: Meiji Japan Revisited.” This Journal 31, no. 4 (1971): 729–76.Google Scholar
Kingdom of Siam. Statistical Yearbook of the Kingdom of Siam [or Thailand], annual series, 1920–1938/39. Bangkok: Variously published: Department of General Statistics, Ministry of Finance or Central Service of Statistics, Department of Secretary General of the Council.
Kumar Dharma. Land and Caste in South India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965.
Kumar Dharma. “South India.” In The Cambridge Economic History of India vol. 2: c. 1757-c. 1970, edited by Dharma Kumar, 207–41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Kuznets Simon, and Ernest Rubin. Immigration and the Foreign Born. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1954.
Kwangtung Government, China, Reports of Statistics, vol. 3 Wage Indexes of Labourers in Canton, China 1912–1927. Canton: Che Wo Printing, 1928.
Landon Kenneth Perry, The Chinese in Thailand. London: Oxford University Press, 1941.
Latham A. J. H., and Larry Neal. “The International Market in Rice and Wheat, 1868–1914.” Economic History Review 36, no. 2 (1983): 260–80.Google Scholar
Leff Nathaniel H. Underdevelopment and Development in Brazil Vol. 1: Economic Structure and Change, 1822–1947. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982.
Lewis A. B., and Lien Wang. “Farm Prices in Wuchin, Kiangsu.” Economic Facts no. 2 (1936): 73–91.Google Scholar
Lewis W. Arthur. “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour.” Manchester School of Social and Economic Studies 22, no. 2 (1954): 139–91.Google Scholar
Lewis W. Arthur. “The Export Stimulus.” In Tropical Development, 1880–1913, edited by W. Arthur Lewis, 13–45. London: Allen & Unwin, 1970.
Lewis W. Arthur. The Evolution of the International Economic Order. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978.
Lin Alfred H. Y. The Rural Economy of Guangdong, 1870–1937. London: Macmillan, 1997.
Little Ian M. D. Economic Development: Theory, Policy and International Relations. New York: Basic Books, 1982.
Look Lai Walton. “Asian Contract and Free Migrations to the Americas.” In Coerced and Free Migrations: Global Perspectives, edited by David Eltis, 229–58. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
McAlpin Michelle. “Price Movements and Economic Activity (1860–1947).” In The Cambridge Economic History of India vol. 2: c. 1757-c. 1970, edited by Dharma Kumar, 878–04. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Madden G. S., and I. M. Kim. Unit Roots, Cointegration and Structural Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Madras, Report of the Census of the Madras Presidency, 1871, by W. R. Cornish. Madras: Government Gazette Press, 1874.
Madras. Wage Censuses [variously published and known as the “Quinquennial” Wage Censuses] 1911–1941. Madras: Government of Madras.
Madras. Monthly Digest of Economics and Statistics Madras State, vol. 1, no. 1 (April 1950). Madras: Economic Advisor to the Government of Madras, 1950.
Malaya, Federated Malay States, Review of the Census Operations and Results, 1911, by A. M. Poutney. London: HMSO, 1911.
Malaya. The Census of British Malaya, 1921, by J. E. Nathan. London: Waterlow and Sons, 1921.
Malaya. Return of Foreign Imports and Exports, annual series, 1921–1928. Singapore: Government Printing Office.
Malaya. Average Prices, Declared Trade Values, Exchange, Currency and Cost of Living, annual series, 1922–1938. Singapore: Government Printing Office.
Malaya. Foreign Imports and Exports, annual series, 1930–1937. Singapore: Government Printing Office.
Malaya. British Malaya, A Report on the 1931 Census, by C. A. Vlieland. London: Crown Agents, 1932.
Malaya. Annual Report of the Labour Department, Malaya, 1938 and 1939. Kuala Lumpur: Federated Malay States Government Press, 1939 and 1940.
Malaya. The Foreign Trade of Malaya 1939. Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1941.
Malaya. Malaya, A Report on the 1947 Census of Population, by M. V. Del Tufo. London: Crown Agents, 1949.
Michelacci Claudio, and Paolo Zaffaroni. “(Fractional) Beta Convergence.” Journal of Monetary Economics 45, no. 1 (2000): 129–53.Google Scholar
Mitchell B. R. International Historical Statistics: Africa, Asia and Oceania, third edition. London: Macmillan, 1998.
Mohammed Saif I. Shah, and Jeffrey G. Williamson. Freight Rates and Productivity Gains in British Shipping 1869–1950, NBER Working Paper 9531. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2003.
Myint H. “The Gains from International Trade and the Backward Countries.” Review of Economic Studies 22, no. 2 (1954–1955): 129–42.Google Scholar
Myint H. “The ‘Classical’ Theory of International Trade and the Underdeveloped Countries.” Economic Journal 68 (1958): 317–37.Google Scholar
Niel Robert van. Living Conditions of Plantation Workers in 1939–1940: Final Report of the Coolie Budget Commission. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1956.
O'Rourke Kevin H., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. Globalization and History. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.
Owen Frank. “Mining in Perak.” Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy 6 (1897–98): 51–84.Google Scholar
Page A. J. Report on Wages in Rice Mills in Burma. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing and Stationary, 1931.
Parmer J. Norman. Colonial Labor Policy and Administration. Locust Valley, NY: J. J. Augustin, 1960.
Perkins Dwight H. Agricultural Development in China, 1368–1968. Chicago: Aldine, 1969.
Philip George Ed. Philip's Mercantile Marine Atlas, fourth edition. London Geographical Institute, London, 1914.
Planters' Association of Malaya. Report of the Special Committee on Chinese Labour. Kuala Lumpur: Planters' Association of Malaya, 1922.
Purcell Victor. The Chinese in Malaya. London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
Ranis Gustav. “Is Dualisam Worth Revisiting?” Yale University Economic Growth Discsussion Paper no. 870. New Haven, CT, 2003.
Rotary Club of Singapore. Singapore as an Industrial Centre. Singapore: Rotary Club of Singapore, 1931.
Runes I. T. General Standards of Living and Wages of Workers in the Philippine Sugar Industry. Manila: Philippine Council Institute of Pacific Relations, 1939.
Saito Teruko, and Lee Kin Kiong. Statistics on the Burmese Economy. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1999.
Sandhu Kernial Singh. Indians in Malaya: Some Aspects of their Immigration and Settlement (1786–1957). London: Cambridge University Press, 1969.
Saw Swee-Hock. Singapore Population in Transition. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970.
Sen A. K. Choice of Techniques. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1960.
Shein Maung. Burma's Transport and Foreign Trade (1885–1914). Rangoon: Department of Economics, University of Rangoon, 1964.
Silverstein Josef. “Politics and Railroads in Burma and India: A Problem of Historical Interpretation.” Journal of the Burma Research Society 45, no. 1 (1962): 79–89.Google Scholar
Singapore Department of Social Welfare. A Social Survey of Singapore, 1947. Singapore, 1948.
Skinner G. W. Chinese Society in Thailand: an Analytical History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1957.
Soliva R. An Economic View of Rubber Planting. Singapore: Kelly & Walsh, 1931.
Sompop Manarungsan. Economic Development of Thailand, 1850–1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy. Groningen: University of Groningen, 1989.
Song Ong Siang, One Hundred Years' History of the Chinese in Singapore. London: John Murray, 1923.
Straits Settlements. Report of the Commissioners to Enquire into the State of Labour in the Straits Settlements and Protected Native States, 1890. Singapore, 1891.
Straits Settlements. Annual Departmental Reports of the Straits Settlements (SSAR), annual series, 1881–1938. Singapore: Government Printing Office.
Sugihara Kaoru. “Patterns of Chinese Immigration to Southeast Asia, 1869–1939.” In Japan, China, and the Growth of the Asian International Economy, 1850–1949, edited by Kaoru Sugihara, 244–74. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Taylor Alan M. “Mass Migration to Distant Southern Shores: Argentina and Australia, 1870–1939.” In Migration and the International Labor Market, 1850–1939, edited by Timothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, 91–115. London: Routledge, 1994.
Tregonning K. G. Home Port Singapore: A History of the Straits Steamship Company Limited, 1890–1965. Oxford: Oxford University Press for Straits Steamship Company, 1967.
Thoburn John T. Primary Commodity Exports and Economic Development. London: John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
T'ien-p'ei Meng and Sidney D. Gamble. Prices, Wages and the Standard of Living in Peking 1900–1924, Supplement to the Chinese Social and Political Science Review, July, 1926. Peking: Peking Express Press, 1926.
United Kingdom. Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. Vol.3: Evidence taken in the Madras Presidency (1927); Vol.4: Appendix to the Report (1928). London: HMSO.
United Kingdom. Royal Commission on Labour in India. Evidence. Madras Presidency and Coorg. Vol. 7, parts 1 and 2. London: HMSO, 1931.
Urquhart M. C., and K. A. H. Buckley. Historical Statistics of Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965.
van der Eng Pierre. The Silver Standard and Asia's Integration into the World Economy. Canberra: Australian National University, Department of Economic History, working paper no.175, 1993.
Vlieland C. A. “The Population of the Malay Peninsula: A Study in Human Migration.” Geographical Review 24, no. 1 (1934): 61–78.Google Scholar
Wang Yeh-Chien. “The Secular Trend of Prices during the Ch'ing Period (1644–1911).” Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 5, no. 2 (1972): 347–71.Google Scholar
Williamson Jeffrey G. “Real Wages, Inequality and Globalization in Latin America before 1940.” Revista Historia Economica 17, special number (1999): 101–42.Google Scholar
Williamson Jeffrey G. “Globalization, Factor Prices and Living Standards in Asia before 1940.” In Asian Pacific Dynamism 1500–2000, edited by A. J. H. Latham and H. Kawakatsu, 13–45. London: Routledge, 2000.
Williamson Jeffrey G. “Land, Labor, and Globalization in the Third World, 1870–1940.” This Journal 62, no. 1 (2002): 55–85.Google Scholar
Wong Lin Ken. The Malayan Tin Industry to 1914. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1965.
Wright Gavin. Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy Since the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996.