Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 December 2010
This article argues that the post-secularisation historiography of the past twenty years has erred in neglecting theological categories of analysis. Committed to challenging the explanatory power of the secularisation thesis, it has established a new paradigm of ‘survival’ and ‘redefinition’, interpreting the sub-Christian morality of the twentieth century as a robust continuation of the pervasive Christianity of the nineteenth. A more theological approach, however, demonstrates that much of the ‘success’ of Victorian religion was achieved at the cost of the soteriology that had fired the religious boom. Tracing a shift from an ‘internal’ concept of sin to an ‘external’ notion of vice, it is argued that Evangelicalism created its own mechanism of secularisation, distilled in the shift from Evangelicalism to temperance agitation.
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2 British Weekly, 12 Aug. 1887, 233.
3 Ibid. 5 Feb. 1891, 238.
4 Liddon, Elements, 50.
5 P. T. Forsyth, in Congregational year book, London 1906, 17.
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16 Jane Garnett, Matthew Grimley, Alana Harris, William Whyte and Sarah Williams (eds), Redefining Christian Britain: post 1945 perspectives, London 2007, 5.
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21 Geoffrey Studdert-Kennedy quoted in M. F. Snape, God and the British soldier, London 2005, 49.
22 I am grateful to Jeremy Morris for this observation.
23 Williams, ‘Language of belief’, 314.
24 Callum Brown, The death of Christian Britain: understanding secularisation, 1800–2000, London 2001, 175.
25 Ibid. 31.
26 Ibid. 33.
27 Ibid. 1.
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29 Ibid. 9, 144, 175.
30 David Hempton, Methodism and politics in British society, 1750–1850, London 1984, 28.
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35 John Walsh, ‘Methodism and the origins of English-speaking Evangelicalism’, in David Bebbington, Mark Noll and George Rawlyk (eds), Evangelicalism: comparative studies of popular Protestantism in North America, the British Isles, and beyond, 1700–1990, Oxford 1994, 26–7.
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37 George Whitefield, ‘Christ the only rest for the weary and heavy-laden’, sermon 21, in Selected sermons of George Whitefield, London 1741, 204–10.
38 John Wesley, ‘Upon our Lord's Sermon on the mount’, sermon 21, in Sermons on several occasions, London 1872, 190.
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43 Hilton, Age of atonement, 13.
44 Quoted in Michael Hennell, John Venn and the Clapham Sect, London 1958, 30–1.
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52 Brown, Fathers, 76.
53 Roger Anstey, The Atlantic slave trade and British abolition, 1760–1810, London 1975, 178–91.
54 Charles Taylor, Sources of the self: the making of the modern identity, Cambridge 1989, 400.
55 Doreen Rosman, Evangelicals and culture, London 1984, 76.
56 Ibid. 75.
57 Donald M. Lewis, Lighten their darkness: the Evangelical mission to working-class London, 1828–1860, Greenwood 1986, 63.
58 A. F. Munden, ‘Close, Francis (1797–1882)’, ODNB [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5703, accessed 8 July 2008].
59 Quoted in John Wolffe, The expansion of Evangelicalism: the age of Wilberforce, More, Chalmers and Finney, Downers Grove, Ill 2007, 186–7.
60 M. Hennell, Sons of the prophets: Evangelical leaders of the Victorian Church, London 1979, 104.
61 Whitefield, Sermons, 207.
62 Francis Close, On the evil consequences of attending the race course exposed in a sermon, London 1827, 6–7.
63 Ibid. 10.
64 A letter to the Rev. Francis Close … in reply to his recent sermon against the races: by the editor of the Gloucester and Cheltenham Herald, Cheltenham 1827, 12.
65 Anon., Falsehood exposed, or the reprover reproved: letter to the Rev. Francis Close in defence of the races, by a peasant, Cheltenham 1827, 11.
66 The races condemned, as contrary to Christianity, in a reply to Vindex: By Scrutator, 11–12.
67 Thomas Chalmers, The expulsive power of a new affection, London 1860 edn, n.p.
68 Edward Irving, Sermons, lectures and occasional discourses, London 1828, 719–20.
69 Owen Chadwick, The Victorian Church, i, London 1970, 464.
70 John Stuart Mill, On liberty, New Haven 2003, 135, 149.
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72 Anon. Tempted London, London 1889, 268–9.
73 Brian Harrison, Drink and the Victorians: the temperance question in England, 1815–1872, London 1971, 179.
74 William Williams, Personal reminiscences of Charles Haddon Spurgeon, London 1895, 39.
75 Doreen Rosman, The evolution of the English Churches, 1500–2000, Cambridge 2003, 222.
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77 Ibid. 175.
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80 G. M. Young quoted in Boyd Hilton, A mad, bad and dangerous people? England, 1783–1846, Oxford 2006, 176.
81 Harrison, Drink and the Victorians, 183.
82 Ibid. 184.
83 David Bebbington, Nonconformist conscience: chapel and politics, 1870–1914, London 1982, 46–7.
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87 Idem, Nonconformist conscience, 14–15.
88 C. Oldstone-Moore, Hugh Price Hughes, founder of a new Methodism, conscience of a new Nonconformity, Cardiff 1999, 173.
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91 See F. D. Maurice, Sermons on the Sabbath day, London 1853.
92 Beatrice Webb, My apprenticeship, London 1926, i. 153
93 Ibid. i. 206.
94 See Alastair Reid, United we stand: a history of Britain's trade unions, London 2004.
95 Social Christianity, London 1890, quoted in D. M. Thompson, ‘The emergence of the Nonconformist social gospel’, in K. Robbins (ed.), Protestant Evangelicalism: Britain, Ireland, Germany and America, c. 1750–c. 1950 (Studies in Church History vii, 1990), 274–5.
96 Gertrude Himmelfarb, The spirit of the age, New Haven, Cn 2007, 17.
97 Taylor, Sources, 316–17.
98 See D. Erdozain, The problem of pleasure: sport, recreation and the crisis of Victorian religion, Woodbridge 2010, ch. v.
99 As one of Edmund Gosse's neighbours described it: E. Gosse, Father and son, London 1989, 205.
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102 Ibid. 6 June 1889, 541.
103 The Young Man, July 1887, 74.
104 McLeod, Religion and society, 138.
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106 John Clifford, God's Greater Britain, London 1899, 105–7.
107 The Young Man (June 1888), 61.
108 C. S. Horne, The institutional Church, London 1906, 23, 20.
109 British Weekly, Tempted London, London 1887, 120.
110 Ibid. 14–15.
111 Ibid. 244.
112 The YMCA Bee-Hive (Mar. 1885), 25.
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114 Francis Stead, A hand-book on young people's guilds, London 1889, 80, 79–80.
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116 Report of the Conference of British Young Men's Christian Associations, Glasgow 1897, 22.
117 The YMCA Bee-Hive (Apr. 1883), 28.
118 Harrison, Drink and the Victorians, 184.
119 Charles Booth, Life and labour of the people in London, 3rd series, religious influences, VII: Summary, London 1903, 20.
120 Ibid. ii. 150.
121 Hugh McLeod, Class and religion in the late Victorian City, London 1974, 70.
122 The Methodist Quarterly Review (Apr. 1855), 268.
123 Josiah Conder, International Congregational Council, 1891, quoted in Clive Binfield, ‘Freedom through discipline: the concept of little Church’, in W. J. Sheils (ed.), Monks, hermits and the ascetic tradition (Studies in Church History xxii, 1985), 405–50, 412.
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125 Dale, Evangelical revival, 15, 163.
126 British Weekly, 2 Dec. 1887, 82.
127 Report of the proceedings of the committee on church-membership: to which is added the report of the committee presented to the conference of 1888, London 1888, 16.
128 Baptist Union of England and Wales Hand-Book, London 1903, 124–5.
129 Report of the Proceedings of the committee on church-membership, 15–16.
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131 British Weekly, 31 Mar. 1892, 365.
132 Congregational Year Book, London 1891, 62.
133 Quoted in Brown, Death of Christian Britain, 120–1.
134 O. F Christie, Clifton school days, 1879–1885, London 1930, 102–3.
135 J. H. S. Kent, Holding the fort: studies in Victorian revivalism, London 1978, 318.
136 T. Kenny, The political thought of John Henry Newman, 171–2, quoted in Brian Harrison, Peaceable kingdom: stability and change in modern Britain, Oxford 1982, 156.
137 Mass Observation, Puzzled people: a study in popular attitudes to religion, ethics, progress and politics in a London borough: prepared for the Ethical Union by Mass Observation, London 1947, 147.
138 P. T. Forsyth, The person and place of Christ, ed. D. M. Thompson, London 1999, p. vii.
139 Quoted in Bebbington, Dominance, 226.
140 Henry Bashford, Augustus Carp, Esq. by himself, being the autobiography of a really good man, London 1924.
141 F. Nietzsche, The twilight of the idols (1888), quoted in Himmelfarb, Spirit of the age, 17.
142 Western Mail, 20 Dec. 1904.
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