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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 January 2022
Psalm lxxviii is one of the most prominent biblical texts associated with the crusades. Most previous scholarship has focused on the intersection of the violent language of the Psalm with the violence of crusading. This article, however, examines the use of Psalm lxxviii by crusade preachers in the context of the history of its medieval interpretations. It uncovers an established medieval tradition of using this Psalm to preach reform rather than vengeance, which crusade preachers maintained when they employed this text to encourage crusading. This finding emphasises the important role that the Church reform movement played in shaping the emergence and development of crusading.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr Jessalynn Bird, Dr Cecilia Gaposchkin and Dr Edward Holt, who all read early drafts of this article and provided timely guidance and insightful criticism that were crucial to its formation and development.
1 Alcuin, ‘Opera omnia Alcuini’, PL ci.673A.
2 Ibid. PL ci.672D.
3 Walafrid Strabo, ‘Glossa ordinaria’, PL cxiii.975B.
4 Christoph T. Maier, Preaching the crusades: mendicant friars and the cross in the thirteenth century, Cambridge 1994, 3, and Crusade propaganda and ideology: model sermons for the preaching of the cross, Cambridge 2000, 5.
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6 Ane Bysted, The crusade indulgence: spiritual rewards and the theology of the crusades, c. 1095–1216, Leiden 2014, 131; Paul Pixton, The German episcopacy and the implementation of the decrees of the Fourth Lateran Council, 1216–1245: watchmen on the tower, Leiden 1995, 2, 7, 236, 372; Maier, Crusade propaganda and ideology, 5; Mansfield, Mary C., The humiliation of sinners: public penance in thirteenth-century France, Ithaca, NY 1995, 74, 288Google Scholar; Davis, Adam Jeffrey, The holy bureaucrat: Eudes Rigaud and religious reform in thirteenth-century Normandy, Ithaca, NY 2006, 76Google Scholar.
7 Jessalynn Bird, ‘Crusade and reform: the sermons of Bibliothèque nationale, Ms nouv. acq. lat. 999’, in E. J. Mylod, Guy Perry, Thomas W. Smith and Jan Vandeburie (eds), The Fifth Crusade in context: the crusading movement in the early thirteenth century, London 2016, 103; Penny Cole, The preaching of the crusades to the holy land, Toronto 1985, 98–176; Maier, Preaching the crusades, 2, and Crusade propaganda, 5; L. E. Boyle, ‘The inter-conciliar period, 1179–1215 and the beginnings of pastoral manuals’, in F. Liotta (ed.), Miscellanea Rolando Bandinelli papa Alessandro III, Siena 1986, 43–56; F. Morenzoni, Des Écoles aux paroisses: Thomas de Chobham et la promotion de la predication au début du XIIIe siecle, Turnhout 1995, 172–87; Bysted, The crusade indulgence, 131; James Brundage, Medieval canon law and the crusader, Madison, Wi 1969, 69–70, 162–3.
8 Beverly Mayne Kienzle, ‘Preaching the cross: liturgy and crusade propaganda’, Medieval Sermon Studies liii (2009), 11–32 at p. 25; Philippe Buc, ‘La Vengeance de dieu: de l'exégèse patristique a la réforme écclesiastique et la première croisade’, in Dominique Barthelemy, Francois Bougard and Regine Le Jan (eds), La Vengeance: 400–1200 (les textes recueillis dans cet ouvrage forment le actes du Colloque La Vengeance: 400–1200 reuni a Rome les 18, 19 et 20 setembre 2003), Rome 2006, 451–86 at pp. 454, 468–9.
9 Penny J. Cole, ‘“O God the heathen have come into your inheritance” (Ps. 78.1): the theme of religious pollution in crusade documents, 1095–1188’, in Maya Shatzmiller (ed.), Crusaders and Muslims in twelfth-century Syria, New York 1993, 85, 95, 106, and The preaching of the crusades, 28; Sylvia Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city: crusader Jerusalem and the Catholic West (1099–1187), Aldershot 2005, 17, 163, 183; Miriam Rita Tessera, ‘The use of the Bible in twelfth-century papal letters to the outremer’, in Elizabeth Lapina and Nicholas Morton (eds), The uses of the Bible in crusader sources, Boston 2017, 179–206 at p. 203.
10 Bibliothèque nationale française, nouv. acq. lat. 999, fos 266va–vb; Jessalynn Bird, ‘Rogations, litanies, and crusade preaching: the liturgical front in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries’, in Jessalynn Bird (ed.), Papacy, crusade, and Christian-Muslim relations, Amsterdam 2018, 155–94, and ‘Crusade and reform’, 98; Elizabeth Lapina and Nicholas Morton, ‘Introduction’; Luigi Russo, ‘The sack of Jerusalem in 1099 and crusader violence viewed by contemporary chroniclers’; Kristin Skottki, ‘Until the full number of Gentiles has come in: exegesis and prophecy in St Bernard's crusade-related writings’; and Jessalynn Bird, ‘Preaching and narrating the Fifth Crusade: Bible, sermons and the history of a campaign’, all in Lapina and Morton, The uses of the Bible, 1–18 at pp. 10, 14; 63–73 at p. 71; 236–72 at pp. 247, 252; and 316–40 at p. 340; Susanna Throop, Crusading as an act of vengeance, 1095–1216, London, 2020, 41.
11 Christoph T. Maier, ‘Liturgy, crisis, and the crusade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries’, this Journal xlviii (1997), 628–57 at p. 633; Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city, 176; Penny J. Cole, ‘Christian perceptions of the battle of Hattin (583/1187)’, Al-Masāq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean vi/1 (1993), 9–39 at pp. 21–4.
12 Cecilia Gaposchkin, Invisible weapons: liturgy and the making of crusade ideology, Ithaca, NY 2017, 197, 225, 247; Amnon Linder, ‘“Deus venerunt gentes”: Psalm 78 (79) in the liturgical commemoration of the destruction of Jerusalem’, in B. S. Albert and others (ed.), Medieval studies in honour of Avrom Saltman, Ramat-Gan 1995, 145–71 at p. 163; Amnon Linder, ‘Individual and community in the liturgy of the liberation of Christian Jerusalem’, in A. Haverkamp (ed.), Information kommunikation und selbstdarstelung in mittelalterlichen gemeinden: Schriften des Historischen Kollegs: Kolloquien 40, Munich 1998, 25–40 at p. 33.
13 ‘O God the heathen have come into thine inheritance; they have defiled thy holy temple; they have laid Jerusalem in ruins./They have given the bodies of thy servants to the birds of the air for food, the flesh of thy saints to the beasts of the earth./They have poured out their blood like water round about Jerusalem, and there was none to bury them./We have become a taunt to our neighbours mocked and derided by those round about us./How long, O Lord? Wilt thou be angry forever? Will thy jealous wrath burn like fire?/Pour out thy anger on the nations that do not know thee, and on the kingdoms that do not call on thy name./For they have devoured Jacob, and laid waste his habitation./Do not remember against us the iniquities of our forefathers; let thy compassion come speedily to meet us, for we are brought very low./Help us O God of our salvation, for the glory of thy name; deliver us and forgive our sins for thy name's sake./Why should the nations say, “Where is their God?” Let the avenging of the outpoured blood of thy servants be known among the nations before our eyes./Let the groans of the prisoners come before thee; according to thy great power preserve those doomed to die./Return sevenfold into the bosom of our neighbours the taunts with which they have taunted thee O Lord./Then we thy people, the flock of thy pasture, will give thanks to thee forever; from generation to generation we will recount thy praise’: Douay-Rheims Bible, vv. 1–13.
14 Arnobius Junior, ‘Septuagesimus et octavus Psalmus apicem antecessories sui secutus’, PL v.439–40; Augustine, Enarrationes in Psalmos, ed. E. Dekkers and I. Fraipont, CCSL xxxix, Turnhout 1956, 1097–102; Cassiodorus Senator, Expositio Psalmorum, ed. M. Adriaen, CCSL xcviii, Turnhout 1958, 671–2; Hilary of Poitiers, ‘Tractatus Psalmi’, PL ix.778C; Walafrid Strabo, ‘Glossa ordinaria’, PL cxiii.974D; Linder, ‘“Deus venerunt gentes”’, 165–6.
15 Cassiodorus, ‘Expositio Psalmi’, PL lxx.74A; Jerome, ‘Opera omnia S. Hieronymi’, PL xxii.1089.
16 Haymo Halberstatensis, ‘Commentaria biblica in omnes Psalmos’, PL cxiii.468C; Peter Lombard, ‘Psalterium commentarii’, PL cxci.751A; Walafrid Strabo, ‘Glossa ordinaria’, PL cxiii.974D; Bruno of Cologne, ‘Santi Brunonis carthusianorum patriarchiae praestantissimi ac theologi parisiensis eruditissimi opera’, PL clii.1059C; Bruno of Asti, ‘Sententiae’, PL clxv.1037B.
17 Jerome, ‘Opera omnia S. Hieronymi’, PL xxii.1055A; Bruno of Würzburg, ‘Expositio Psalmorum’, PL cxlii.301C–301D.
18 Jerome, ‘Opera omnia S. Hieronymi’, PL xxii.1055B.
19 Ibid; Walafrid Strabo, ‘Glossa ordinaria’, PL cxiii.976A; Peter Lombard, ‘Psalterium commentarii’, PL cxci.755C.
20 Katherine Allen Smith, ‘The crusader conquest of Jerusalem and Christ's cleansing of the temple’, in Lapina and Moron, The uses of the Bible, 19–41 at pp. 24–5; Jennifer A. Harris, ‘The body as temple in the high Middle Ages’, in Albert I. Baumgarten (ed.), Sacrifice in religious experience, Leiden 2002, 233–56.
21 Ordericus of Vitalis, ‘Joannes Abrincensis primum episcopus postmodum archiepiscopus Rotomagensis’, PL cxlvii.0026A.
22 Gerhoh of Reichersberg, ‘De quarta vigilia noctis’, MGH, LdL, iii. 521.
23 Idem, ‘De investigatione antichristi’, ed. E. Sackur, MGH, LdL, iii. 314–15; Gregory the Great, Homiliarum in evangelia, ed. R. Etaix, C. Morel and B. Judic, SC cdlxxxv, Paris 2005, i. 385; Bruno of Segni, Commentaria in Lucam 46, PL clxv.440; Humbert of Silva Candida, Adversus simoniacos, ed. F. Thaner, MGH, LdL, i. 174; Guibert of Nogent, Autobiographie (monodies), ed. Edmond-Rene Labande, Paris 1981, 160; Smith, ‘The crusader conquest of Jerusalem’, 22–5; Louis I. Hamilton, ‘Sexual purity, “the faithful”, and religious reform in eleventh-century Italy: Donatism revisited’, in John Doody, Kevin L. Hughes and Kim Paffenroth (eds), Augustine and politics, Lanham, Md 2005, 237–60; Joseph H. Lynch, Simoniacal entry into the religious life from 1000 to 1260, Columbus, Oh 1976, 66–7.
24 Gerhoh of Reichersberg, ‘De investigatione antichristi’, MGH, LdL, iii. 339.
25 Haymo Halberstatensis, ‘Commentaria biblica in omnes Psalmos’, PL cxiii.468C; Walafrid Strabo, ‘Glossa ordinaria’, PL cxiii.974D; Bruno of Asti, ‘Sententiae’, PL clxv.1037B.
26 Gerhoh of Reichersberg, ‘Libelli’, MGH, LdL, iii. 496.
27 Lapina and Morton, ‘Introduction’, 10.
28 The Historia Ierosolimitana of Baldric of Bourgueil, ed. Steven Biddlecombe, Woodbridge 2014, 6–7; Linder, ‘“Deus venerunt gentes”’, 168.
29 Historia Ierosolimitana, 8–9.
30 Fulcher of Chartres, Historia Hierosolymitana (1095–1127), ed. H. Hagenmeyer, Heidelberg 1913, 135.
31 Ibid. 134.
32 Gerhoh of Reichersberg, ‘De investigatione antichristi’, MGH, LdL, iii. 314–15; Smith, ‘The crusader conquest of Jerusalem’, 22–5.
33 Bird, ‘Preaching and narrating the Fifth Crusade’, 316–17.
34 Gilbert of Poitiers, Commentary on the Psalms, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, ms lat. 17210, fos 118v–119v; Peter the Chanter, Commentary on the Psalms, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, ms lat. 14426, fos 62va–63ra; Bird, ‘Rogations, litanies, and crusade preaching’, 184–5.
35 Gilbert of Poitiers, Commentary on the Psalms, fos 118v–119v.
36 Peter the Chanter, Commentary on the Psalms, fos 62va–63ra.
37 Theresa Gross-Diaz, The Psalm commentary of Gilbert of Poitiers: from lectio divina to the lecture room, Leiden 1996, 81–3, 154–5; Marcia Colish, ‘Teaching and learning technology in medieval Paris’, in P. Henry (ed.), Schools of thought in the Christian tradition, Philadelphia, Pa 1984, 109, 115; Bird, ‘Rogations, litanies, and crusade preaching’, 184–5.
38 Gregory viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1539D; Roger of Howden, Chronica, ed. W. Stubbs (Rolls Series li, 1868–71), ii. 359; Celestine iii, ‘Epistolae et privilegia’, PL ccvi.1107D; Innocent iii, ‘Gesta Innocentii’, PL ccxiv.134; ‘Quia maior’, PL ccxvi.817–21; and Die register Innocenz III, ed. Othmar Hagender and Anton Haidacher, Graz–Koln 1964, i, 21, 430; vi. 221; James M. Powell, Anatomy of a crusade, 1213–1221, Philadelphia, Pa 1990, 20; Colin Morris, The sepulchre of Christ and the medieval West: from the beginning to 1600, New York 2005, 266; Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city, 183; Gaposchkin, Invisible weapons, 195, 202; Linder, Raising arms, 2–6, 11; Maier, ‘Crisis, liturgy, and the crusade’, 637.
39 ‘Sermo magistri Iohannis de Albavilla ad crucesignatos’, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, nouv. acq. lat. 999, fos 169va–170ra, edited in Cole, Preaching the crusades, 151; J. B. Schneyer, Repertorium der lateinischen sermones des mittelalters fur die zeit von 1150–1350, Munster 1989, iv. 837; Anonymous, ‘Nisi dominus custodierit civitatem’, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, nouv. acq. lat. 999, fos 276vb–276ra; Stephen Langton, Commentary on Joshua, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, ms lat. 1414, fos 49rb–vb; James of Vitry, Lettres, ed. R. B. C. Huygens, Leiden 1960, vi. 127; vii. 134–9; Oliver of Paderborn, Historia Damiatina, ed. Hermann Hoogeweg, Tubingen 1894, 287–8; Philip the Chancellor, Dixit dominus ad Iosue, leva clipeum qui in manu tua est, Bibliothèque municipale, Troyes, ms 1099, fos 15va–17ra; Linder, Raising arms, 40–1.
40 Maier, Preaching the crusade, 117–18, and Crusade propaganda and ideology, 67, 121; Jussi Hanska, And the rich man also died and he was buried in hell: the social ethos in mendicant sermons, Helsinki 1997, 171; David L. D'Avray, The preaching of the friars: sermons diffused from Paris before 1300, Oxford 1988, 6, 123; Jessalynn Bird, ‘Reform or crusade? Anti-usury and crusade preaching during the pontificate of Innocent iii’, in John Moore (ed.), Pope Innocent III and his world, Aldershot 1999, 166, 176, 179; Augustine Thompson, Revival preachers and politics in thirteenth century Italy: the great devotion of 1233, Eugene, Or 2010, 33; Little, Religious poverty, 23, 36, 99, 117.
41 Innocent iii, Die register Innocenz III, i. 22, 222.
42 Anonymous, ‘Nisi dominus custodierit civitatem’, fos 276vb–276ra; Bird, ‘Rogations, litanies, and crusade preaching’, 183.
43 Gregorius viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1539D.
44 Tessera, ‘The use of the Bible’, 203; Thomas W. Smith, ‘Audita tremendi and the call for the Third Crusade reconsidered, 1187–1188’, Viator xlix/3 (2018), 63–101 at p. 64; Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city, 159–71.
45 Gregorius viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1541–2; ‘E continuatione chronici Hugonis a Sancto Victore’, ed. L. Weiland, MGH, SS, xxi, Hannover 1869, repr. Leipzig 1925, 475–6; Ralph of Coggeshall, Chronicon Anglicanum, ed. J. Stevenson (Rolls Series lxvi, 1875, repr. 1965), 224–6; Henry of Albano, ‘De peregrinatione civitate dei’, PL cciv.355; Cole, ‘Christian perceptions’, 9, 19, 24–5; Bysted, The crusading indulgence, 259; Maier, ‘Liturgy, crisis and the crusade’, 631; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The crusades: a short history, New Haven, Ct 1987, 109–19; Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city, 180.
46 Gregorius viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1541C.
47 Ibid. PL ccii. 1539–42; Bibliothèque municipale, Rouen, ms 518 (O 17), fo. 202v; Smith, ‘Audita tremendi’, 74.
48 Peter Edbury, ‘Celestine iii, the crusade and the Latin East’, in John Doran and Damian J. Smith (ed.), Pope Celestine III (1191–1198): diplomat and pastor, Burlington, Vt 2008, 129–44 at p. 134.
49 Gregorius viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii. 1541–2; Celestine iii, ‘Epistolae et privilegia’, PL ccvi. 1107D–1108A; Cole, Preaching the crusades, 152.
50 Cole, Preaching the crusades, 152.
51 Celestine iii, ‘Epistolae et privilegia’, PL ccvi.1107D–1108A.
52 Gregory viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1541; Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city, 170; Smith, ‘Audita tremendi’, 65.
53 Anonymous, ‘Nisi dominus custodierit civitatem’, fos 276vb–277rb.
54 Bysted, The crusade indulgence, 240.
55 Celestine iii, ‘Epistolae et privilegia’, PL ccvi.1109A; Howden, Chronica, iii. 200–2; Innocent iii, Die register Innocenz III, i. 431.
56 Celestine iii, ‘Epistolae et privilegia’, PL ccvi.1109A.
57 Ibid. PL ccvi.1109A–1110A.
58 Ibid. PL ccvi.1107–10; Howden, Chronica, iii. 200–2; Edbury, ‘Celestine iii, the crusade and the Latin East’, 130, 133; Anne J. Duggan, ‘Hyacinth Bobone: diplomat and pope’, in Pope Celestine III (1191–1198), 1–31 at p. 27.
59 Statuta capitulorum generalium ordinis cisterciensis ab anno 1116 ad annum 1786, ed. J. M. Canivez, Louvain, 1933–41, i. 235; Alessandro Pratesi, Carte latine di abbazie calabrese provenienti dall’ archivio Aldobrandini, Vatican City 1958, 175–8; Antonio Maria Adorisio, Il “liber usuum ecclesiae Cusentinae” di Luca di Casamari arcivescovo di Cosenza, Casamari 2000, 7; Igino Vona, Storia e documenti dell'abbazia di Casamari, 1182–1254: dall'avvento dei Cistercensi al pontificato di Innocenzo IV: nascita del complesso monastic, Casamari 2007, 88; Brenda Bolton, ‘For the see of Simon Peter: the Cistercians at Innocent iii's nearest frontier’, in her Innocent III: studies on papal authority and pastoral care, Aldershot 1995, 1–20.
60 Innocent iii, Die register Innocenz III, i. 431.
61 Ibid. i. 432.
62 Ibid. i. 222.
63 Ibid. i. 431–2.
64 Ibid. i. 22.
65 Innocent iii, ‘Gesta Innocentii’, PL ccxiv.134; Gaposchkin, Invisible weapons, 202; Linder, ‘Deus venerunt gentes’, 152.
66 Innocent iii, ‘Gesta Innocentii’, PL ccxiv.134.
67 Ibid.
68 Bird, ‘Crusade and reform’, 95.
69 Cole, Preaching the crusades, 153.
70 Bernard of Clairvaux, ‘De consideratione ad Eugenium papam’, ed. Gerhard B. Winkler, in Bernhard von Clairvaux, Samtliche Werke, I: Lateinisch/Deutsch, Innsbruck 1990, ii, ii/2; Skottki, ‘Until the full number of Gentiles has come in’, 263, 269.
71 Celestine iii, ‘Epistolae et privilegia’, PL ccvi.1108D; Cole, Preaching the crusades, 155.
72 Innocent iii, Die register Innocenz III, i. 431.
73 Bird, ‘Preaching and narrating the Fifth Crusade’, 329.
74 Stephen Langton, Commentary on Joshua, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, ms lat. 1414, fos 49rb–vb; ms lat. 384, fos 85rb–va.
75 James of Vitry, Lettres, vi. 127; vii. 134–9; Oliver of Paderborn, Historia Damiatina, 287–8; Bird, ‘Preaching and narrating the Fifth Crusade’, 331–2: James M. Powell, ‘Honorius iii and the leadership of the crusade’, Catholic Historical Review xiii (1977), 521–36.
76 Philip the Chancellor, Dixit dominus ad Iosue, leva clipeum qui in manu tua est, fos 15va–17ra; Bird, ‘Preaching and narrating the Fifth Crusade’, 333; Maier, ‘Crisis, liturgy, and the crusade’, 628–57, and ‘Mass, the eucharist and the cross: Innocent iii and the relocation of the crusade’, in J. C. Moore (ed.), Pope Innocent III and his world, Aldershot 1999, 351–60; Nicole Beriou, ‘La Prédication de croisade de Philippe le Chancelier et d'Eudes de Chateauroux en 1226’, in La Prédication en pays d'Oc (XIIe–debut XVe siècle), Toulouse 1997, 85–109.
77 Gregorius viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1540C; Innocent iii, Die register Innocenz III, i. 431; Howden, Chronica, iii. 200–2; Smith, ‘Audita tremendi’, 77.
78 Gregorius viii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1542C.
79 Ibid. PL ccii.1541C.
80 John D. Cotts, ‘The exegesis of violence in the crusade writings of Ralph Niger and Peter of Blois’, in Lapina and Morton, The uses of the Bible, 273–96 at p. 288.
81 Gregory vii, ‘Audita tremendi’, PL ccii.1539.
82 James of Vitry, ‘Sancti Marci. Feria secunda in laetania maiori sive in rogationibus thema de epistola, “confitemini”’, in Damianus a Ligno (ed.), Sermones in epistolas et evangelia dominicalia totius anni, Antwerp 1575, 507–14 at p. 508; Bird, ‘Rogations, litanies, and crusade preaching’, 177–8.
83 Roger of Howden, Chronica, ii. 359; Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city, 183; Gaposchkin, Invisible weapons, 195; Linder, Raising arms, 2–6, 11; Maier, ‘Crisis, liturgy, and the crusade’, 637.
84 Statuta capitulorum generalium ordinis Cisterciensis, i. 172; Maier, ‘Crisis, liturgy, and the crusade’, 634; Linder, ‘Individual and community’, 28.
85 Innocent iii, ‘Opera omnia’, PL ccxvi.698–9; Gaposchkin, Invisible weapons, 200.
86 Damian J. Smith, ‘La guerra contra los musulmanes en Espana <en palabras> de papa Inocencio iii’, in Carlos de Ayala Martinez, Patrick Henriet and J. Santiago Palacio Ontalva (ed.), Origenes y desarrollo de la guerra santa en la peninsula Iberica, Madrid 2016, 207–18.
87 Innocent iii, ‘Quia maior’, PL ccxvi.817–21; Schein, Gateway to the heavenly city, 183–5; Linder, Raising arms, 35.
88 Edmond Martene and Ursin Durand (eds), Thesaurus novus anecdotorum, Farnborough 1968, iv. 1754; Bullarium franciscanum romanorum pontificum, ed. Giovanni Giacinto Sbaralea, Santa Maria degli Angeli 1883–1984, iv. 127–9 at p. 273; Sibert Beka, Ordinaire de l'ordre du Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel, ed. B. Zimmerman, Paris 1910, 86; Michel Andrieu (ed.), ‘Le Pontifical romain au moyen-âge’, Vatican City 1940, 630; Gaposchkin, Invisible weapons, 221; Linder, ‘“Deus venerunt gentes”’, 156, 161, and Raising arms, 2, 35.
89 Innocent iii, ‘Opera omnia’, PL ccxvii.601C–605A.
90 Ibid. PL ccxvii. 603D.