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² See Hofstadter, Richard, ‘The revolution in higher education’, in Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr, and White, Morton (eds), Paths of American thought, Boston 1970, 269–90Google Scholar; Metzger, Walter P., Academic freedom in the age of the university, New York 1955, chs i–iiiGoogle Scholar; Rudolph, Frederick, Curriculum: a history of the American undergraduate course of study since 1636, San Francisco 1977, 107–9, 203Google Scholar, and The American college and university: a history, New York 1962, chs xiii, xviGoogle ScholarPubMed; Perry, Lewis, Intellectual life in America: a history, New York 1984, 289–94Google Scholar; Veysey, Laurence R., The emergence of the American university, Chicago 1965Google Scholar; Noll, Mark A., ‘Christian thinking and the rise of the American university’, Christian Scholar's Review ix (1979), 3–16Google Scholar. On the authority of science and universities in American culture see Hollinger, David A., ‘The knower and the artificer’, American Quarterly xxxix (1987), 38–55Google Scholar; Roberts, Jon H., Darwinism and the divine in America: Protestant intellectuals and organic evolution, 1859–1900, Madison 1988, pp. xiv–xvi, 235–42Google Scholar; Haskell, Thomas L., The emergence of professional social science: the American Social Science Association and the nineteenth-century crisis of authority, Urbana 1977Google Scholar, and (ed.), The authority of experts: studies in history and theory, Bloomington 1984Google Scholar; Kuklick, Bruce, The rise of American philosophy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1860–1930, New Haven 1977Google Scholar, and Churchmen and philosophers: from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey, New Haven 1985, ch. xiiiGoogle Scholar.

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⁴ Marsden, George M., The soul of the American university: from Protestant establishment to established non-belief, New York 1994, 4Google Scholar. Another alternative account of the place of religion in the twentieth-century university is Sloan, Douglas, Faith and knowledge: mainline Protestantism and American higher education, Louisville, 1994Google Scholar, which examines the limited influence of neo-orthodox theology

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⁹ Flexner, A., Daniel Coil Gilman: creator of the American type of university, New York 1946, 8Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Gilman quoted in Franklin, , Life, 29, 37, 29Google Scholar. Gilman's remark on Bushnell, whom he ranked, ‘in genius’, next to Edwards, Jonathan, comes from ‘The relations of Yale to science and letters’, in Launching, 176Google Scholar.

¹¹ Quoted in Franklin, , Life, 29Google Scholar; ‘The Christian resources of our country’, in Alliance, Evangelical, U.S. conference, Washington, D.C., 1887: national perils and opportunities, New York 1887, 283Google Scholar.

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¹⁴ ‘The characteristics of a university’, in University problems in the United States, New York 1969 [1898], 85Google Scholar; ‘The relation of universities to the progress of civilization’, UNY Report, 1886, 211, Gilman Papers; untitled manuscript (1876), ibid.; ‘The utility of universities’, in University problems, 56–7.

¹⁵ ‘The choice of a vocation’ (1884), ‘Bodily discipline’ (1889), ‘The training of the will’ (1889), and ‘Character forming books’ (n.d.), all in Gilman papers.

¹⁶ Gilman, , ‘The utility of universities’, 61Google Scholar; Gilman to Flint, 27 Apr. 1881; Smyth to Gilman, 25 Aug, 8, 11 Nov, 1881, 19 June 1882; James Carey Thomas to Gilman, 7, 14 June 1881, Gilman Papers. On Flint see Lightman, Bernard, Origins of agnosticism: Victorian unbelief and the limits of knowledge, Baltimore 1987, 18–22Google Scholar. The best accounts of the changes in philosophy at Hopkins are Hawkins, Pioneer, ch. xi; Fisch, Max H. and Cope, Jackson I., ‘Peirce at the Johns Hopkins University’, in Wiener, Philip P. and Young, Frederic H. (eds), Studies in the philosophy of Charles Sanders Peirce, Cambridge 1952, 277–311Google Scholar. See also Wenley, R. M., The life and work of George Sylvester Morris, New York 1917CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ross, Dorothy, G. Stanley Hall: the psychologist as prophet, Chicago 1972Google Scholar; Kuklick, Rise of American philosophy; Haskell, Emergence, ch. vii.

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¹⁸ Quoted in Hawkins, , Pioneer, 257Google Scholar. On the significance of these changes see ibid. 204, 253–8, and Rudolph, , American college, 445–6Google Scholar. For Griffin's, ideas on education see his ‘The college in the university’, JHAM i (1912–1913), 186–99Google Scholar, and Murray P. Brush, ‘To Edward Herrick Griffin, LL.D.’, ibid. iv (1914–15), 33–5.

¹⁹ Gilman, quoted in Hawkins, , Pioneer, 176Google Scholar. On the YMCA see JHUC (1892), 60; (1887), 65, 80; French, John C., A history of the university founded by Johns Hopkins, Baltimore 1946, 324–32Google Scholar; Hawkins, , Pioneer, 279, 320–1Google Scholar; ‘The Levering Hall at Homewood’, JHAM xviii (1929–1930), 14–27Google Scholar.

²⁰ See Hollinger, , ‘Justification’, Hawkins, , Pioneer, 68–9, 175–6, 297–9Google Scholar; Veysey, , Emergence, 162–3Google Scholar. Daniels, George H., American science in the age of Jackson, New York, 1968Google Scholar, offers a similar explanation for the religiosity of antebellum scientists. The one exception is Marsden, Soul of the American university, ch. ix.

²¹ Metzger, , Academic freedom, 72Google Scholar. For similar estimates see Hawkins, , Pioneer, 68–9Google Scholar, and Between Harvard and America: the educational leadership of Charles W. Eliot, New York 1972, 120–4Google Scholar; Altschuler, Glenn C., Andrew D. White – educator, historian, diplomat, Ithaca 1979, 93–5Google Scholar; Veysey, , Emergence, 15–16Google Scholar. Huxley's ‘Address on university education’ is reprinted in Science and education: essays, New York 1968 [1898], 235–61. On Huxley's religious views see Gilley, Sheridan and Loades, Ann, ‘Thomas Henry Huxley: the war between science and religion’, Journal of Religion lxi (1981), 285–308CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Lightman, Origins of agnosticism, ch. v. For an alternative perspective on White's history of science and theology see Altschuler, Andrew D. White, ch. xii, and Lindberg, David C. and Numbers, Ronald L., ‘Beyond war and peace: a reappraisal of the encounter between Christianity and science’, Church History lv (1986), 338–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²³ See Moore, J. R., The post-Darwinian controversies: a study of the Protestant struggle to come to terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870–1900, Cambridge 1979, 19–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roberts, Jon H., Darwinism and the divine: Protestant intellectuals and organic evolution, 1859–1900, Madison, Wisc. 1988Google Scholar; Livingstone, David N., Darwin's forgotten defenders: the encounter between evangelical theology and evolutionary thought, Grand Rapids 1987Google Scholar.

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²⁵ ‘Our national schools of science’, offprint, Gilman papers, 28; ‘The inauguration of President Wheeler at Berkeley, October, 25, 1899’, in Launching, 230; ‘Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, New Haven’, in University Problems, 148; ‘Christian resources’, 282, and ‘Research – a speech delivered at the convocation of the University of Chicago, June, 1903’, in Launching, 251. Gilman relied on Spencer's progressive interpretation of Darwinism. For Spencer's influence, see Moore, Jim, ‘Herbert Spencer's henchmen: the evolution of Protestant liberals in late nineteenth-century America’, in Durant, John R. (ed.), Darwinism and divinity: essays on evolution and religious belief, Oxford 1985, 76–100Google Scholar, and Livingstone, , Darwin's forgotten defenders, 48–56Google Scholar.

²⁶ ‘The utility of universities’, in University problems, 56; ‘Resignation: a farewell address after twenty-five years’ service', in Launching, 133; ‘The Characteristics of a university’, in University problems, 96; ‘Presentation of Thorwaldsen's statue of Christ in the Hopkins Hospital’ (1896), 6, Gilman papers.

²⁷ ‘Research’, 251; ‘Characteristics’, 97; ‘Remembrance’, 150; ‘Utility’, 55. For the prevalence of these sentiments in American learning during this period see Hollinger, , ‘Justification by verification’. Bozeman, Theodore Dwight, Protestants in an age of science: the Baconian ideal and antebellum American religious thought, Chapel Hill 1977Google Scholar, demonstrates the doxological character of antebellum science.

²⁸ ‘Sheffield’, 117, and ‘Is it worthwhile to uphold any longer the idea of liberal education?’, Educational Review ii (1892), 115Google Scholar.

²⁹ ‘Johns Hopkins University in its Beginning’, in University problems, 12–13; ‘Research’, 251; ‘Remembrances’, 154; ‘Books and polities’, in Launching, 218.

³⁰ What follows is based largely on Noll, ‘The rise and long life’.

³¹ Ibid. 93–6; May, Enlightenment, esp. section 4; Noll, Mark A., Princeton and the republic: the search for a Christian enlightenment in the era of Samuel Stanhope Smith, Princeton, 1989Google Scholar.

³² Idem, ‘Rise and long life’, 102–8. For a small sampling of the works that have demonstrated the influence of Common Sense Realism see Ahlstrom, Sydney E., ‘The Scottish philosophy and American theology’, Church History xxiv (1955), 257–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bozeman, Protestants in an age of science; Hatch, Nathan O., ‘The Christian movement and the demand for a theology of the people’, JAH lxvii (1980), 545–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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