¹ In the extensive bibliography see Wasserstein, Bernard, Vanishing diaspora: the Jews in Europe since 1945, Cambridge, Ma 1996 Google Scholar; Dinnerstein, Leonard, America and the survivors of the Holocaust, New York 1982 Google Scholar; Cohen, Beth B., Case closed: Holocaust survivors in postwar America, New Brunswick, NJ 2007 Google Scholar; and Bauer, Yehuda, Out of the ashes: the impact of American Jews on post-Holocaust European Jewry, New York 1989 Google Scholar.

² See Achcar, Gilbert, ‘Le reazioni all'Olocausto nel Medio Oriente arabo’, in Cattaruzza, Marina, Flores, Marcello, Sullam, Simon Lewis and Traverso, Enzo (eds), Storia della Shoah: la crisi dell'Europa, lo sterminio degli ebrei e la memoria del XX secolo, Turin 2006, 869–900 Google Scholar, and Les Arabes et la Shoah: la guerre israélo-arabe des récits, Arles 2009. On the complex Muslim reaction to the Holocaust see Motadel, David, Islam and Nazi Germany‘s war, Cambridge, Ma–London 2015 Google Scholar.

³ See the very problematic work of Finkielkraut, Alain, La Réprobation d'Israël, Paris 1983 Google Scholar.

⁴ See della Torre, Stefano Levi, ‘Fine del dopoguerra e sintomi antisemiti’, Rivista di storia contemporanea xv (1984), 437–56Google Scholar, and the stimulating analysis on the Italian case – but with broader conclusions – offered by Marzano, Arturo and Schwarz, Guri in Attentato alla sinagoga: Roma, 9 ottobre 1982: il conflitto israelo-palestinese e l'Italia, Rome 2013, esp. pp. 114–38Google Scholar.

⁵ The seven Catholic Churches in the Middle East are the Latin, Maronite, Melkite, Armenian, Chaldean, Coptic and Syrian Churches. In the Holy Land the two main communities are the Melkite and the Latin. Concerning the latter, the two most important institutions are the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem (whose jurisdiction covers Israel, Jordan and Cyprus) and the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. On the Christian population of this region see O'Mahony, Anthony (ed.), Palestinian Christians: religion, politics and society in the Holy Land, London 1999 Google Scholar, and The Christian communities of Jerusalem and the Holy Land: studies in history, religion and politics, Cardiff 2003; Pieraccini, Paolo, Il ristabilimento del Patriarcato latino di Gerusalemme e la Custodia di Terra Santa: la dialettica istituzionale al tempo del primo patriarca, mons. Giuseppe Valerga (1847–1872), Cairo–Jerusalem 2006 Google Scholar; ‘Il ristabilimento del patriarcato latino di Gerusalemme (1842–1851)’, Cristianesimo nella storia xxvii (2006), 861–96Google Scholar; and ‘La diocesi patriarcale latina di Gerusalemme, la Santa Sede e le grandi potenze: dalla caduta dell'impero ottomano alla seconda guerra mondiale (1917–1939)’, unpubl. PhD diss. Florence 2009; Tsimhoni, Daphne, The Christian communities in Jerusalem and the West Bank since 1948: an historical, social and political study, Westport 1993 Google Scholar; Mazza, Roberto, ‘Churches at war: the impact of the First World War on the Christian institutions of Jerusalem, 1914–20’, Middle Eastern Studies xlv (2009), 207–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Colbi, Saul P., A history of the Christian presence in the Holy Land, New York 1988 Google Scholar; Maggiolini, Paolo, Arabi cristiani di Transgiordania: spazi politici e cultura tribale (1841–1922), Milan 2011 Google Scholar, and ‘Studies and souvenirs of Palestine and Transjordan: the revival of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem and the rediscovery of the Holy Land during the 19th century’, in Netton, Ian Richard (ed.), Orientalism revisited: art, land and voyage, Abingdon–New York 2013, 165–75Google Scholar; and Médebielle, Pierre, Le Patriarcat Latin de Jérusalem, Jerusalem 1962 Google Scholar, and Encore à propos du Patriarcat Latin de Jérusalem, Jerusalem 1962. For the historical construction of the concept of the Holy Land see Laurens, Henry, La Question de Palestine, I/4: L'Invention de la Terre sainte (1799–1922), Paris 1999 Google Scholar.

⁶ On Catholic anti-Judaism and antisemitism in the contemporary age see Brice, Catherine and Miccoli, Giovanni (eds), Les Racines chrétiennes de l'antisémitisme politique (fin XIXe–XXe siècle), Rome 2003 Google Scholar; I dilemmi e i silenzi di Pio XII: Vaticano, Seconda guerra mondiale e Shoah (2000), Milan 2007 Google Scholar; and Antisemitismo e cattolicesimo, Brescia 2013; Menozzi, Daniele, «Giudaica perfidia»: uno stereotipo antisemita fra liturgia e storia, Bologna 2014 Google Scholar; Connelly, John, From enemy to brother: the revolution in Catholic teaching on the Jews, Cambridge, Ma–London 2012 Google Scholar; Airiau, Paul, L'Antisémitisme catholique aux XIXe et XXe siècles, Paris 2002 Google Scholar; Bensoussan, Georges and Delmaire, Danielle (eds), ‘Catholiques et protestants français après la Shoah’, Revue d'histoire de la Shoah cxcii (2010)Google Scholar; Crane, Richard Francis, Passion of Israel: Jacques Maritain, Catholic conscience and the Holocaust, Scranton 2010 Google Scholar; Becker, Annette, Delmaire, Danielle and Gugelot, Frédéric (eds), Juifs et chrétiens: entre ignorance, hostilité et rapprochement (1898–1998), Villeneuve d'Ascq 2002 Google Scholar; Moro, Renato, La Chiesa e lo sterminio degli ebrei (2002), Bologna 2009Google Scholar; Passelecq, Georges and Suchecky, Bernard, L'Encyclique cachée de Pie XI: une occasion manquée de l’Église face à l'antisémitisme, Paris 1995 Google Scholar; Phayer, Michael, The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965, Bloomington–Indianapolis 2000 Google Scholar; Poujol, Catherine, L’Église de France et les enfants juifs: des missions vaticanes à l'affaire Finaly (1944–1953), Paris 2013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Wolf, Hubert, Papst und Teufel: die Archive des Vatikan und das Dritte Reich, Munich 2008 Google Scholar.

⁷ See Ben-Rafael, Eliezer, Gorny, Yosef and Ro'i, Yaacov (eds), Contemporary Jewries: convergence and divergence, Leiden–Boston 2012 Google Scholar, particularly the second part about Israeli Jewishness at pp. 65–129; Dieckhoff, Alain, ‘Israël: la pluralisation de l'identité nationale’, in Dieckhoff, Alain and Kastoryano, Riva (eds), Nationalismes en mutation en Méditerranée orientale, Paris 2002, 153–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kimmerling, Baruch, The invention and decline of Israeliness: state, society and the military, Berkeley 2001 Google Scholar; and Bar-Tal, Daniel (ed.), Israeli identity: between Orient and Occident, Abingdon–New York 2013 Google Scholar.

⁸ On relations between the Holy See, the Israeli state and the Jewish yishuv see Mayeres-Rebernik, Agathe, La Saint-Siège face à la ‘Question de Palestine’: de la Déclaration Balfour à la creation de l’État d'Israël, Paris 2015 Google Scholar; Bialer, Uri, Cross on the star of David: the Christian world in Israel's foreign policy, 1948–1967, Bloomington 2005 Google Scholar; Ferrari, Silvio, Vaticano e Israele dal secondo conflitto mondiale alla guerra del Golfo, Florence 1991 Google Scholar; Minerbi, Sergio I., Il Vaticano, la Terra Santa e il Sionismo, Milan 1988 Google Scholar; Giovannelli, Andrea, La Santa Sede e la Palestina: la Custodia di Terra Santa tra la fine dell'impero ottomano e la guerra dei sei giorni, Rome 2000 Google Scholar; Kreutz, Andrej, Vatican policy on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict: the struggle for the Holy Land, New York–Westport–London 1990 Google Scholar; Irani, George Emile, The papacy and the Middle East: the role of the Holy See in the Arab-Israeli conflict, 1962–1984, Notre Dame 1986 Google Scholar; Laurens, Henry, ‘Le Vatican et la question de la Palestine’, in d'Encausse, Hélène Carrère and Levillain, Philippe (eds), Nations et Saint-Siège au XXe siècle, Paris 2003, 303–42Google Scholar; and Trimbur, Dominique, ‘The Catholic Church thought on Judaism, Zionism and the State of Israel: mid-nineteenth century–1965’, in O'Mahony, Anthony and Flannery, John (eds), The Catholic Church in the contemporary Middle East: studies for the Synod for the Middle East, London 2010, 225–36Google Scholar.

⁹ See Menozzi, Daniele, La Chiesa cattolica e la secolarizzazione, Turin 1993 Google Scholar; Miccoli, Giovanni, Fra mito della cristianità e secolarizzazione, Casale Monferrato 1985 Google Scholar.

¹⁰ In its statistics for 1951 the Latin Patriarchate reported 5,275 Latins inside the Israeli State: ‘Dati statistici al 1° gennaio 1951’, LPJA, Parrocchie e missioni del Patriarcato latino di Gerusalemme. According to Israeli records, in 1949 the main two Christian communities were the Orthodox and the Melkite with 11,764 and approximately 11,500 faithful respectively: Wardi, Chaim (ed.), Christians in Israel: a survey, Jerusalem 1950, 31 Google Scholar.

¹¹ Le Morzellec, Joëlle, La Question de Jérusalem devant l'Organisation des Nations Unies, Brussels 1979 Google Scholar.

¹² See Ferrari, Vaticano e Israele.

¹³ In 1918 Luigi Barlassina (1872–1947) was appointed auxiliary of the Patriarch of Jerusalem. In 1920 he became Patriarch of the Latin diocese: Pieraccini, Paolo, ‘Il Patriarcato latino di Gerusalemme (1918–1940): ritratto di un patriarca scomodo: mons. Luigi Barlassina’, Il Politico lxiii (1998), 207–56, 591–639 Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Alberto Gori (1889–1970), Franciscan friar, was head of the Custody of the Holy Land from 1937 to 1949. That year he was appointed Latin Patriarch of the Jerusalem diocese, a role that he maintained until his death. See idem, ‘Mons. Alberto Gori (1889–1970), Custode di Terra Santa e Patriarca Latino di Gerusalemme’, Studi francescani cviii (2011), 283–323 Google Scholar.

¹⁵ This was the case, for example, of Fr Pierre de Condé, superior of the community of St Peter of Sion (Ratisbonne) in Jerusalem. In the spring of 1945 he wrote to the International League against Antisemitism. In this letter he stated that ‘ami des Juifs, je le suis par vocation c'est-à-dire par un très libre choix de la direction de ma vie. Je suis Père de Sion et vous savez combien avant la guerre fut efficace l'appel à la raison e au cœur constamment lancé par nos publications de “la Question d'Israël” rue Notre-Dame des Champs 68: il fit reculer l'antisémitisme en éclairant bien des esprits’: Pierre De Condé to the International League against Antisemitism, Jerusalem, 16 Apr. 1945, JMA, box 2686 קתול’ם, Père P. de Condé.

¹⁶ On Jordanian-Jewish relations see Shlaim, Avi, Collusion across the Jordan: King Abdullah, the Zionist movement and the partition of Palestine, Oxford 1988 Google Scholar and the introduction to the new edition ( The politics of partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists, and Palestine, 1921–1951, New York 1998 Google Scholar); Wilson, Mary Christina, King 'Abdullah, Britain and the making of Jordan, Cambridge 1987 Google Scholar; and Gelber, Yoav, Jewish-Transjordan relations, 1921–1948, London 1997 Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Achcar, ‘Le reazioni all'Olocausto nel Medio Oriente arabo’, 879.

¹⁸ See ‘Informazioni prese dalla lettera del Rev.mo Mgr Gélat scritta al Vicario Latino di Amman, in data 28 maggio 1948’, LPJA, LB-AG 1.7–1.3, 3, Vicariato Transgiordania, 1946–53, typescript.

¹⁹ See Trimbur, Dominique, ‘Une Présence française en Palestine – Notre–Dame de France’, Bulletin du Centre de recherche français à Jérusalem iii (1998), 32–57 Google Scholar.

²⁰ ‘Nos chambres ont été pillées. Les archives du bureau du père supérieur ont été saccagées, dispersées, détruites. Le coffre-fort a été ouvert et vidé … La sacristie a été aussi visitée, les tiroirs et les armoires ont été vidés du linge et de divers objets consacrés au culte. Ici, au vol s'ajoute la profanation qui nous est encore plus sensible que le vol’: report, ‘Occupation et siège de l'Hôtellerie de Notre-Dame de France en Mai et Juin 1948’, Fr Pascal Saint-Jean to the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem, 11 June 1948, NDFA, serie 4: rapports avec les autorités militaires, file ‘Correspondance avec les autorités militaires israéliennes’, 1947–8.

²¹ Ibid.

²² Fr Saint-Jean to Bernard Joseph, military governor of Jerusalem, copy, Jerusalem, 5 Dec. 1948, ibid.

²³ Fr Albino Gorla to Y. Herzog, Eugène Tisserant and Gustavo Testa, Deir Rafat, 12 Dec. 1948, ISA, 5805/7–ג, ISA, 5805/7–ג, letter no. 45.

²⁴ Ibid.

²⁵ Fr Patrick J. Coyle and Fr Theophane Carrell ‘to all concerned’, copy, Jerusalem, 30 Sept. 1948, NDFA, serie 4: rapports avec les autorités militaires, file ‘Correspondance avec les autorités militaires israéliennes’, 1947–8.

²⁶ Fr Alberto Rock to Tisserant, copy to the Minister of Religious Affairs, Acre, 1 Dec. 1948, ISA, 5824/8–ג.

²⁷ In 1949, after a conversation with Mgr Domenico Tardini, the Italian ambassador at the Holy See, Antonio Meli Lupi di Soragna wrote that ‘gli Israeliani stanno applicando agli Arabi buona parte dei sistemi che i nazisti applicavano a loro stessi’, adding that ‘Israele, dice Tardini, conduce una lotta accanita contro il cattolicismo’: quoted in Riccardi, Luca, Il «problema Israele»: diplomazia italiana e PCI di fronte allo Stato ebraico [1948–1973], Milan 2006, 38 Google Scholar.

²⁸ Rock to Tisserant, copy to the Minister of Religious Affairs, Acre, 1 Dec. 1948, ISA, 5824/8–ג.

²⁹ See Minerbi, Il Vaticano, la Terra Santa, 182–3.

³⁰ Mgr Luigi Barlassina to Mgr Arthur Hughes, Jerusalem, 27 July 1946, LPJA, LB–AG 1.6–1.2, 2, Delegazione Apostolica, 1943–55.

³¹ Miccoli, Giovanni, ‘Two sensitive issues: religious freedom and the Jews’, in Alberigo, Giuseppe (ed.), English edn Komonchak, Joseph A. (ed.), History of Vatican II, IV/5: Church as communion: third period and intersession September 1964–September 1965, Maryknoll, NY–Leuven 2003, 95–193 Google Scholar at p.147.

³² Fr Pacifico Perantoni to Tisserant, Rome, 9 Aug. 1948, doc. T. S. no. 25/48, AGCOFMR, Segreteria Generale, Custodia di Terra Santa, box SK 761.

³³ See Zanini, Paolo, «Aria di crociata»: i cattolici italiani di fronte alla nascita dello Stato d'Israele (1945–1951), Milan 2012, 151 Google Scholar, 195.

³⁴ L'Amandier fleuri, 1951, 74–6, republished in Opera minora, iii/3, Beirut 1963, 526–8. On Louis Massignon and Israel/Palestine see Bourel, Dominique, ‘Louis Massignon face à Israël’, in Massignon, Daniel (ed.), Louis Massignon et le dialogue des cultures, Paris 1996, 293–305 Google Scholar; Destremeau, Christian, ‘La Question sioniste, l’État d'Israël’, in Keryell, Jacques (ed.), Louis Massignon et ses contemporains, Paris 1997, 289–308 Google Scholar; and Mayeres, Agathe, ‘Massignon face au sionisme’, Bulletin du Centre de recherche français à Jérusalem xx (2009), 2–15 Google Scholar, also available at www.bcrfj.revues.org.

³⁵ See Masalha, Nur, The Palestinian refugee problem: Israeli plans to resettle the Palestinian refugees, 1948–1972, Ramallah 1996 Google Scholar.

³⁶ ‘Ces arguments [those expressed by Abba Eban] s'appuient sur une mentalité de colonialisme bourgeois qui ne trouve plus guère d’écho que dans le chauvinisme impénitent du militarisme nord-africain de chez nous et dans l'afrikandérisme de M. Malan’: Louis Massignon, ‘Le Problème des réfugiés arabes de Palestine’, Opera minora, iii/3, 526.

³⁷ In Hebrew, ‘stranger’.

³⁸ In Hebrew, ‘diaspora’.

³⁹ Massignon, ‘Le Problème des réfugiés arabes’, 526.

⁴⁰ Lettera circolare n. 11 del custode Alberto Gori, Jerusalem, 12 May 1949, AGCOFMR, Segreteria Generale, Custodia di Terra Santa, box SK 762.

⁴¹ In the text, the author stated that Zionism ‘qu'il soit d'inspiration spiritualiste et constitue la revanche d'il y a deux mille ans contre le christianisme: qu'il soit athée et matérialiste, et devienne le fourrier du communisme en Moyen Orient: le sionisme ne saurait tolérer sous quelque forme que ce soit, l'expression de la doctrine du Christ sur “sa” terre … Les purs orthodoxes dévoilent jours après jours leur ambitions … Leur position politique donne l'auréole du martyre aux terroristes, dont beaucoup se recrutent parmi eux’. The bulletin, dated 7 May 1949, was republished in Documentation Catholique xlvi (1949), 645–8. It is now available in Gerusalemme nei documenti pontifici, ed. Farhat, E., Vatican City 1987, 307–9Google Scholar.

⁴² See Giovannelli, La Santa Sede e la Palestina, 194–6.

⁴³ Documentation Catholique xlvi (1949), 649–52. See Gerusalemme, 311–4.

⁴⁴ See Fr Saint-Jean to Fr Gervais Quénard, Jerusalem, 3 Mar. 1949, AGCAFAR, doc. PJ 65.

⁴⁵ About the war and the refugee issue, the author stated that ‘Les Juifs sont venus, ont vidé les maisons, puis y ont installé les leurs. Il y a eu, en très petit nombre, des Arabes chrétiens, qui sont restés chez eux; les hommes en état de porter les armes, ont été envoyés dans des camps de concentration; (plusieurs ont été relâchés depuis) tous ont été contraints d'abandonner leur demeure, d'où on ne leur a laissé emporter que très peu de chose, ils ont été relégués dans des maisons abandonnées et pillées; là, ils vivent dans une sort de “ghetto” entouré de barbelés et ils ne peuvent en sortir que munis d'autorisations difficilement accordées’: ibid. 312.

⁴⁶ See Lettera circolare n. 11.

⁴⁷ Marlin Moshe Levin, ‘Israel and the Churches’, Palestine Post, 26 July 1949.

⁴⁸ Antonio Vergani to Alberto Gori, Nazareth, 4 Feb. 1951, LPJA, LB–AG 1.7–1.3, 4, Vicariato Galilea 1946–56.

⁴⁹ Vergani to Tisserant, copied to Gori, Haifa, 18 Feb. 1954, ibid.

⁵⁰ See Achcar, Les Arabes et la Shoah.

⁵¹ See idem, ‘Eichmann in Cairo: the Eichmann Affair in Nasser's Egypt's Al-Ahram (1960–62)’, Arab Studies Journal xx (2012), 74–103 Google Scholar.

⁵² On the Eichmann trial see Lipstadt, Deborah, The Eichmann trial, New York 2011 Google Scholar, and Cesarani, David, Becoming Eichmann: rethinking the life, crimes, and trial of a ‘desk murderer’, Cambridge, Ma 2006 Google Scholar (and his critique of the essential Arendt, Hannah, Eichmann in Jerusalem: a report on the banality of evil, New York 1963 Google Scholar).

⁵³ Cesarani, David and Sundquist, Eric J. (eds), After the Holocaust: challenging the myth of silence, London–New York 2012 Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ On the memory process of the Holocaust in Israel see Segev, Tom, The seventh million: the Israelis and the Holocaust, New York 1993 Google Scholar, and Zertal, Idith, From catastrophe to power: Holocaust survivors and the emergence of Israel, Berkeley 1998 Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Lipstadt, The Eichmann trial, 130.

⁵⁶ ‘Editorial: racismo contra racismo’, Tierra Santa, July–Aug. 1961, 7.

⁵⁷ ‘Los jueces de Israel’, ibid. 34–6.

⁵⁸ ‘Editorial:’, ibid. 7.

⁵⁹ Ibid.

⁶⁰ ‘Los jueces de Israel’, ibid. 34.

⁶¹ Ibid.

⁶² Ibid. 35.

⁶³ Ibid.

⁶⁴ Ibid. 36.

⁶⁵ This group, mainly composed of Jewish converts to Christianity, was established in 1954 within the Latin Patriarchate with a specific commitment to pastoral work in and towards the Jewish world in Israel. This organisation has a particular importance and interest: on the one hand, it evoked and embodied the long, complex and dramatic history of relations between Jews and Christians, but with a completely new attitude toward the Jewish state. On the other hand, new and unusual traits and features characterised the St James Association, clearly distinguishing it from a centuries-old tradition of Christian speech, practices, violence and topoi directed to the conversion of the ‘Jewish race’ to Christianity. See Delmaire, Danielle, ‘La Communauté catholique d'expression hébraïque en Israël: shoah, judaïsme et christianisme’, Revue d'histoire de la Shoah cxcii (2010), 237–87Google Scholar, and Rioli, Maria Chiara, ‘L'Opera San Giacomo: una Chiesa ebraica nello stato d'Israele’, Materia Giudaica xix (2014), 247–65Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Br Yochanan Elichai to Gori, Ramat-Gan, 8 Sept. 1961, LPJA, Opera S. Giacomo.

⁶⁷ Ibid.

⁶⁸ Ibid.

⁶⁹ Gori wrote that ‘l'attitude à tenir par le Clergé à propos de certaines douloureuses questions est le silence’: Gori to Elichai, prot. 965/61, Jerusalem, 17 Sept. 1961, LPJA, Opera S. Giacomo.

⁷⁰ In a letter addressed to the Patriarch by Fr Alfred Delmée (1925–85), the Polish priest responsible for the St James Association community of Tel Aviv-Jaffa, he inquired about the events: ‘l'essentiel des articles semble se résumer à ceci: il ne faut pas juger l'antisémitisme sans en décrire les causes. Or les auteurs se gardent soigneusement de définir les sources de l'antisémitisme. Quelles sont donc ces racines de l'antisémitisme que l'on a oublié de signaler en Israël? Je crains qu'il ne s'agisse dans l'esprit des auteurs de théories prêchées jadis par certains régimes totalitaires et utilisées par les antisémites pour se justifier. Peut-être faut-il reconnaître parmi divers causes de l'antisémitisme, un manque d'amour, assez déconcertant des chrétiens pour le peuple de leur Seigneur’: Fr Alfred Delmée to Gori, Jaffa, 10 Sept. 1961, SJAA.

⁷¹ On Nostra Aetate see Miccoli, ‘Two sensitive issues’, 95–193; Lamdan, Neville and Melloni, Alberto (eds), Nostra aetate: origins, promulgation, impact on Jewish-Catholic relations, Münster 2007 Google Scholar; and Rosenthal, Gilbert S. (ed.), A Jubilee for all time: the Copernican revolution in Jewish-Christian relations, Eugene, Or 2014 Google Scholar.

⁷² See Fouilloux, Étienne, Eugène, cardinal Tisserant (1884–1972), Paris 2011, 421–54Google Scholar, and Bialer, Cross on the star, 54.

⁷³ See Journet-Maritain correspondance: 1950–1957, iv/6, Saint-Maurice 2005, 506, and Maritain, Jacques, Le Mystère d'Israël et autres essais, Paris 1965 Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ See Sevegrand, Martine, Israël vu par les catholiques français (1945–1994), Paris 2014 Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ The relevance of the tiny experience of the St James Association in a cultural milieu that supported philo-semitism at the Council confirms John Connelly's thesis on the central importance and role of ‘bridges’ between communities provided by Jewish converts to Christianity in the Jewish-Catholic dialogue: From enemy to brother, 63–4.