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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 March 2010
The Wesleyan-Holiness Churches that emerged in Australia after the Second Word War encountered considerable opposition from other Evangelicals who distrusted their brand of perfectionism. The explicitly American origin of these Churches was both the cause of their exclusion and at the same time a mechanism for their survival. The emergence of the Holiness denominations in Australia is not an example of American cultural and religious imperialism. Rather it has been a creative partnership between like-minded Evangelical Christians from two modern nations sharing a general cultural and social similarity and a common set of religious convictions.
1 Albert Berg to Ted Hollingsworth, 8 Jan. 1945, Nazarene archives, Kansas City.
2 All these groups find the impetus for their teachings in the life and theology of John Wesley, the eighteenth-century Anglican priest who founded the Methodist movement after his heart was ‘strangely warmed’ by a profound sense of religious assurance in 1738. The most critical recent biographies of Wesley are Kenneth J. Collins, A real Christian: the life of John Wesley, Nashville 1999; Richard P. Heitzenrater, Wesley and the people called Methodists, Nashville 1995; John Kent, Wesley and the Wesleyans: religion in eighteenth-century Britain, Cambridge 2002; and Henry D. Rack, Reasonable enthusiast: John Wesley and the rise of Methodism, Nashville 1993. Rowland Ward and Robert Humphreys list the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia, the Association of the Church of God in Australia, the Church of the Nazarene, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, the Apostolic Christian Church (Nazarene) and the Salvation Army under the heading ‘Evangelical Protestant/Holiness tradition’, in Religious bodies in Australia: a comprehensive guide, Melbourne 1995, 135–42. The Salvation Army is excluded from this study as having British origins. The Christian and Missionary Alliance is of American origin but is not Wesleyan-Holiness in theology. The Apostolic Christian Church is perfectionist, but Anabaptist, rather than Wesleyan, in theology. See O'Brien, ‘North American Wesleyan-Holiness Churches in Australia’, appendices A, B at pp. 234–44. This research focuses upon the Church of God (Anderson), the Church of God (Cleveland), the Church of the Nazarene and the Wesleyan Methodist Church all of which are characterised by the distinctive doctrine of ‘entire sanctification’ understood as a second work of grace subsequent to conversion, whereby one is understood to be cleansed from sin and filled with perfect love for God and neighbour. See Donald Dayton, The theological roots of Pentecostalism, Grand Rapids 1987; Melvin Easterday Dieter, The Holiness revival of the nineteenth century, Metuchen–London 1980; Charles Edwin Jones, Perfectionist persuasion: the Holiness movement and American Methodism, 1876–1936, Metuchen 1974; and John Leland Peters, Christian perfection and American Methodism, Grand Rapids 1985. The Church of God (Cleveland) belongs to the subcategory ‘Pentecostal-Holiness’, a group of Holiness Churches that posit a ‘third blessing’ after ‘entire sanctification’, of the ‘enduement of power’ evidenced by ‘speaking in tongues’: Ward and Humphries, Religious bodies in Australia, 182–5; Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal tradition: charismatic movements in the twentieth century, Grand Rapids 1997.
3 Kate Darian-Smith, ‘War and Australian society’, in Joan Beaumont (ed.), Australia's war, 1939–1945, Sydney 1996, 55.
4 P. L. Beals, ‘Report to the board of general superintendents’, 9 Jan. 1939, Nazarene archives, 3.
5 David Bebbington, Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s to the 1980s, London 1989, 16–17.
6 Ibid. 27–8.
7 Stuart Piggin, Evangelical Christianity in Australia: spirit, word and world, Melbourne 1996, esp. ch. v. David Millikan has also examined the movement in detail: Imperfect company: power and control in an Australian Christian cult, Melbourne 1991.
8 Piggin, Evangelical Christianity, 122.
9 Richard Waterhouse, ‘Popular culture’, in Philip Bell and Roger Bell (eds), Americanization and Australia, Sydney 1993, 45.
10 Mark Twain, ‘Following the equator’, cited in Peter A. Thompson and Robert Macklin, The battle of Brisbane: Australians and the Yanks at war, Sydney 2000, 9.
11 Richard Ely, Unto God and Caesar: religious issues in the emerging commonwealth, 1891–1906, Melbourne 1976.
12 Ibid. 39.
13 Neville Douglas Buch, ‘American influence on Protestantism in Queensland since 1945’, unpubl. PhD diss. Queensland 1995.
14 David Parker, ‘Baptists in Queensland, 1855–1995: de-colonizing or trans-colonizing?: towards an understanding of Baptist identity in Queensland’, http://home.pacific.net.au/~dparker/bwa.html
15 Ian Breward, A history of the Churches in Australasia, Melbourne 2001, 178.
16 Hans Mol, Religion in Australia: a sociological investigation, Melbourne 1971, 1.
17 Allan M. Grocott, Convicts, clergymen, and Churches: attitudes of convicts and ex-convicts towards the Churches and clergy in New South Wales from 1788 to 1851, Sydney 1980, 218–19.
18 Leicester Webb, ‘Churches and the Australian community’, in E. L. French (ed.), Melbourne studies in education, 1958–1959, Melbourne 1960, 104–5.
19 Patrick O'Farrell, The Catholic Church in Australia, Melbourne 1968, 249.
20 Hilary M. Carey, ‘The vanished kingdoms of Patrick O'Farrell: religion, memory and migration in religious history’, JRH xxxi/1 (2007), 55.
21 Hugh Jackson, Churches and people in Australia and New Zealand, 1860–1930, Wellington 1987, 57.
22 Darrel Paproth, ‘Revivalism in Melbourne from federation to World War I: the Torrey-Alexander-Chapman campaigns’, in Mark Hutchinson, Edmund Campion and Stuart Piggin (eds), Reviving Australia: essays on the history and experience of revival and revivalism in Australian Christianity, Sydney 1994, 143–69.
23 Jackson, Churches and people, 57–8. See also Richard Broome, Treasure in earthen vessels: Protestant Christianity in New South Wales society, 1900–1914, Brisbane 1980, 65–73.
24 Broome, Treasure, 66.
25 Jill Julius Matthews, ‘Which America?’, in Bell and Bell, Americanization, 16.
26 Ibid. 22–3.
27 Beatrice Tildesley, ‘The cinema in Australia’, in Australian Quarterly, 15 Dec. 1930, 89–103.
28 Bell and Bell, Americanization, 25.
29 David Lee, ‘Politics and government’, in Beaumont, Australia's war, 82.
30 Ibid. 97.
31 David Lowe, ‘Australia in the world’, ibid. 169. The debate over whether or not Australia charted a new course in turning away from its traditional links with Great Britain to forge new ones with the US is outlined in P. Edwards, G., ‘1941: a turning point in foreign policy’, Teaching History ix (1975), 18–26Google Scholar.
32 Michael Dunn, Australia and empire: from 1788 to the present, Sydney 1984, 156. Beaumont rejects the idea that this speech represents a ‘turning point’ in Australian foreign policy: Australia's war, 31.
33 David Day, ‘Pearl Harbor to Nagasaki’, cited in Beaumont, Australia's war, 170.
34 This is borrowed from chapter titles in George Johnston's Pacific partners (London 1945), a book ‘about Australia … written by an Australian to give Americans a clearer picture of the role of this great South Pacific ally in the general pattern of World War II … to penetrate into the psychology of the Australian fighting man; and to examine his relations, in action and out of it, with the American doughboy’ (p. 5).
35 David Day, Claiming a continent: a new history of Australia, Sydney 2002, 226–7.
36 ‘In the beginning: memoirs, Rev. W. D. Pinch Church of the Nazarene 1945–64’, Wesleyan-Holiness archive, Kingsley College, Melbourne, 6.
37 Thompson and Macklin, Battle of Brisbane, 6.
38 Ibid. 4–5.
39 Anthony J. Barker and Lisa Jackson, Fleeting attraction: a social history of American servicemen in Western Australia during the Second World War, Perth 1996, 4–5.
40 Ibid. 152.
41 Dorothy Hewitt, Wild Card: an autobiography, 1923–1958, Ringwood 1990, 85.
42 Private Edward S. Leonski, a twenty-four-year-old from New York City, stationed at Royal Park in Melbourne, attempted to strangle a woman in her St Kilda flat but she escaped. He was more successful on 3 May 1942 when he strangled Ivy McLeod in Albert Park, followed by Pauline Thompson on 9 May in the city centre, and Gladys Hosking, in Parkville, on 18 May: Barker and Jackson, Fleeting attraction, 73, 122.
43 Johnston, Pacific partners, 105.
44 Ibid. 105–6.
45 Darian-Smith, ‘War and Australian society’, 73–4.
46 Thompson and Macklin, Battle of Brisbane, 1–2.
47 Barker and Jackson, Fleeting attraction, 93.
48 For the history of the Church of the Nazarene and its global spread see Timothy L. Smith, Called unto Holiness: the story of the Nazarenes: the formative years, Kansas City 1962; W. T. Purkiser, Called unto Holiness, I: The story of the Nazarenes: the second twenty-five years, 1933–58, Kansas City 1983. The standard denominational history of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of America is Ira F. McLeister and Roy S. Nicholson, Conscience and commitment: the history of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of America, Marion 1976. Excellent chapters on denominational history are included in Wayne E. Caldwell (ed.), Reformers and revivalists: the history of the Wesleyan Church, Indianapolis 1992: particularly helpful on the early formation period is Lee M. Haines, ‘Radical reform and living piety: the story of earlier Wesleyan Methodism, 1843–1867’, at pp. 31–117. For the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia, founded in 1946, see Don Hardgrave, For such a time: a history of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia, Brisbane 1988. An official biography of Kingsley Ridgway, the founder of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia, was published in 1996 as part of the Church's jubilee celebrations: Glen O'Brien, Kingsley Ridgway: pioneer with a passion, his life and legacy, Melbourne 1996. Included in this work is a reprint of Ridgway's autobiographical, Feet upon the mountains: a history of the first five years of the Wesleyan missionary work in Papua New Guinea (Marion 1976), and excerpts from an earlier autobiographical work, In search of God: an account of ministerial labours in Australia and the islands of the sea (Brockville, Ontario n.d.).
49 This meeting did not take place in Melbourne, as recorded in McLeister and Nicholson, Conscience and commitment, 436. The exact identity of the serviceman is unknown. A certain Theron Colgrove was one American Wesleyan who had met Kingsley Ridgway in the Pacific at this time. He later migrated to Australia where he was for some time part of the fledgling Wesleyan work there. He eventually settled in Queensland, adopting a ‘British-Israelite’ theology and taking the Hebrew name of Abraham Kol. He died in April 1992: Allen Hall to Miss H. Colgrove, 25 Apr.1992, Wesleyan-Holiness archive.
50 O'Brien, Pioneer with a passion, 59.
51 Darian-Smith, ‘War and Australian society’, 72.
52 Thompson and Macklin, Battle of Brisbane, viii.
53 Pinch, ‘Memoirs,’ 24.
54 Mendell Taylor, Fifty years of Nazarene missions, III: World outreach through home missions, Kansas City 1958, 68–9.
55 Ralph Earle, Fields afar: Nazarene missions in the Far East, India, and the South Pacific, Kansas City 1969, 120.
56 J. Fred Parker, Mission to the world: a history of missions in the Church of the Nazarene through 1985, Kansas City 1988, 586.
57 ‘Facts and figures of the land down under’, District N.Y.P.S. Missionary News i/1 (July 1945), Nazarene archives.
58 Rally poster for Michigan NYPS meeting, c. 1946, ibid.
59 R. Franklin Cook, Water from deep wells, Kansas City 1977, 156.
60 Nelson G. Mink, Southern cross salute, Kansas City 1969, 11.
61 Herbert F. Stevenson (ed.), Keswick's authentic voice: sixty-five dynamic addresses delivered at the Keswick convention, 1875–1957, London 1959, 13. See also J. C. Pollock, The Keswick story: the authorised history of the Keswick convention, London 1964.
62 For an excellent treatment of the Keswick and wider British Holiness movements see Bebbington, Evangelicalism, 151–80.
63 Jackson, Churches and people, 63.
64 Walter Phillips, Defending ‘A Christian country’: churchmen and society in NSW in the 1880s and after, St Lucia 1981, 80–1.
65 Ibid. 81.
66 O'Brien, ‘“A beautiful virgin country”’, 158–64.
67 Jackson, Churches and people, 64.
68 Ibid. 65.
69 Breward, A history of the Churches in Australasia, 257.
70 David B. McEwan, ‘An examination of the correspondence (1944–48) relating to the founding of the Church of the Nazarene in Australia’, unpubl. paper, Nazarene Theological Seminary, Kansas City 1984, 39.
71 Hilary M. Carey, Believing in Australia: a cultural history of religions, Sydney 1996, 25.
72 Mol, Religion in Australia, 2.
73 Stuart Piggin, ‘Towards a theoretical understanding of revival: recent developments in the historiography of revival’; Rowland Ward, ‘Spiritual awakenings in Scottish Gaelic communities in Australia, 1837–1870’; and Bob James, ‘“Lots of religion and freemasonry”: the politics of revivalism during the 1930s depression on the northern coalfields’, in Hutchinson, Campion and Piggin, Reviving Australia, 13–33, 75–96, 233–48; Stuart Piggin, ‘The history of revival in Australia’, in Mark Hutchinson and Edmund Campion (eds), Re-visioning Australian colonial Christianity: new essays in the Australian Christian experience, 1788–1900, Sydney 1994, 173–93.
74 Gary D. Bouma, ‘Assessing trends in the position, strength and role of religion in Australian society’, in R.S.M. Withycombe (ed.), Australia and New Zealand religious history, 1788–1988, Canberra 1988, 44–85.
75 Mol, Religion in Australia, 237.
76 Carey, Believing in Australia, 10.
77 Ibid. 11.
78 It is possible, however, that Deakin may be commenting on the members' illiteracy, rather than their irreligion.
79 Constitutional debate, Melbourne 1898, ii. 2, 1739–40, in Ely, Unto God and Caesar, 72–3.
80 P. L. Beals, ‘Report to the Board of General Superintendents’, 9 Jan. 1939, Nazarene Archives, 3.
81 Berg to Hollingsworth, n.d. but replying to Hollingsworth to Berg, 6 June 1946, ibid. 1.
82 Berg to I. F. Younger, 26 Sept. 1962, ibid.
83 Arthur A. Clarke to Hollingsworth, 10 Oct. 1946, ibid. 2.
84 Berg to Hollingsworth, 25 Jan. 1946, ibid. 3.
85 Berg to G. B. Williamson, 7 June 1949, ibid.
86 Pinch, ‘Memoirs,’ 38.
87 Cook, Water from deep wells, 41.
88 David Bennet, The altar call: its origins and present usage, Lanham 2000, 4.
89 Ibid. 79.
90 Ibid. 157.
91 Barker and Jackson, Fleeting attraction, 118.
92 Yuri Lotman, Universe of the mind: a semiotic theory of culture (1990), quoted in Bell and Bell, Americanization, 8.
93 His written account of the visit, taken from travel journal entries, was kindly copied and made available by the Revd J. R. Swauger's grandson, the Revd Dr Joseph Dongell, Professor of Biblical Studies at Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky.
94 ‘Conference president's report’, in Minutes of the annual conference, Wesleyan Methodist Church (1947), 7, Wesleyan Archive, Kingsley College, Melbourne.
95 Ibid.
96 ‘Report of the committee on resolutions’, ibid. 9.
97 Ibid. 15. Unfortunately, it then seems to drop out of the record until much later.
98 ‘Literature secretary's report’, Minutes of the annual conference, Wesleyan Methodist Church (1953), 66, Wesleyan Archive.
99 Berg to Williamson, 7 June 1949, Nazarene archives.
100 ‘Conference president's report’, in Minutes of the Australia Mission annual conference of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of America (1949), Wesleyan Archive.
101 Minutes of the annual conference, Wesleyan Methodist Church (1954), 101, ibid.
102 Berg to Williamson, 7 June 1949, Nazarene archives.
103 During the Annual Wesleyan Youth Camp in the Dandenong mountains that January the temperature reached 105 degrees: Roy S. Nicholson, ‘Christmas week in Australia’, Wesleyan Methodist, 9 Feb. 1955, 3.
104 Roy S. Nicholson, ‘The last week in Australia’, Wesleyan Methodist, 16 Feb. 1955, 3 (emphasis my own).
105 David Hilliard, ‘God in the suburbs: the religious culture of Australian cities in the 1950s’, Australasian Historical Studies xxiv (October 1991), 417. It is sometimes claimed that one quarter of the entire population of Australia and New Zealand attended a Graham crusade meeting, but it should be remembered that the attendances usually cited are aggregates, with many people attending more than once, some even attending every night, making the total number of individuals much less. I am grateful to David Hilliard for pointing this out to me.
106 The term ‘fundamentalist’ is often used in an unhelpfully indeterminate way. Terms like ‘evangelical,’ ‘fundamentalist’ and ‘conservative’ are not synonyms and need to be used with caution. In strictly historical terms ‘fundamentalism’ may be seen as referring to a ‘coalition of militantly conservative Protestants [in the United States] who were trying to preserve [beginning around 1920] the nineteenth-century revivalist Protestant establishment’ from the perceived threat of modernist theology: George M. Marsden, Religion and American culture, Fort Worth 1990, 182–7. More broadly, and here, it refers to militant, anti-modernist Protestant evangelicalism wherever it may be found.
107 Billy Graham, Just as I am: the autobiography of Billy Graham, San Francisco 1996, 325–37.
108 Howard Guiness, I object … to Billy Graham, Sydney n.d. Guiness had come to Australia from Britain in 1929 at the invitation of J. B. Nicholson, a prominent Australian businessman, to enliven campus ministry on Australian universities. He became an influential evangelical leader.
109 Standing order 18, in Minutes of the annual conference (1958), 250, Wesleyan Archive. Strangely the Nazarene assembly minutes for 1958, 1959 and 1960 make no mention of the Graham crusades. Mrs Miriam Midgely, at that time a member of the Church of the Nazarene, recalled in a conversation with the writer that as a member of that Church she was not permitted to serve as ‘counselor’ at the crusades, the Nazarenes not being recognised as a denomination by the organisers.
110 ‘Conference president's report’, ibid. 260.
111 ‘Vice-President's report’, ibid. 262.
112 ‘Conference president's report’, Minutes (1960), 12, ibid.
113 Stuart Piggin, ‘The American and British contributions to evangelicalism in Australia’, in Mark A. Noll, David Bebbington and George A. Rawlyk (eds), Evangelicalism: comparative studies of popular Protestantism in North America, the British Isles, and beyond, 1700–1900, New York 1994, 299.
114 Richard Waterhouse, ‘Popular culture’, in Bell and Bell, Americanization, 47.
115 Ibid. 48–50.
116 The standard history of the Church of God (Cleveland) is Charles W. Conn, Like a mighty army: a history of the Church of God, 1886–1995, Cleveland, Tn 1996. See also Mickey Crews, The Church of God: a social history, Knoxville, Tn 1990, and Daniel D. Preston, The era of AJ Tomlinson, Cleveland, Tn 1984. For histories of the Church of God (Anderson) see Barry L. Callen (ed.), Following the light: teachings, testimonies, trials, and triumphs of the Church of God movement (Anderson): a documentary history, Anderson, In 2000, and Malcolm T. Hughes, Seeds of faith: a history of the Church of God Reformation movement in Australia part one, Englewood, Oh 1995.
117 Interview with Winnie McAlpin, Cleveland, Tennessee, July 2001.
118 Interview with Bill McAlpin, Cleveland, Tennessee, July 2001.
119 See Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal tradition, and Dayton, Theological roots of Pentecostalism.
120 This ‘reverse missionary’ pattern which saw immigrant groups evangelise the countries that they entered, was a global pattern in the Church of God as described in Conn, Like a mighty army, 503–4.
121 Winnie McAlpin, ‘Where God's finger points: the Church of God “Down under”’, Dixon Pentecostal Research Center, Cleveland, Tennessee, 4.
123 Paul Brodwin, ‘Pentecostalism and the production of community in the Haitian diaspora’ (University of Wisconsin discussion paper xl, 2000), 23–5.
124 Interview with Harold McLoud, Cleveland, Tennessee, July 2001.
125 Interview with Bill and Winnie McAlpin.
126 W. McAlpin, ‘Where God's finger points’, 2.
127 Interview with Bill and Winnie McAlpin.
128 Ibid.
129 Interview with Harold McLoud.
130 The Church of God (Anderson) commenced work in Australia in 1917 under E. P. May but this did not develop well and the Church re-entered much later, in 1960, led by Carl and Lova Swart. The Association of the Church of God in Australia is the least successful of the Wesleyan-Holiness groups in Australia. The reasons for this have yet to be fully investigated but one possible answer is that the Church remained aloof from other Christians and thus could not find the resources to sustain itself in an unfriendly environment. In 1995 there were six small churches in Australia and about 200 adherents, the same number as a decade earlier: Ward and Humphreys, Religious bodies in Australia, 138. The website listed three churches and one ‘fellowship’ in 1999: http://home.iprimus.com.au/lenbradley/page4.html. (Unfortunately this link is no longer active). See Hughes, Seeds of faith, and Harold Chilver, ‘My heart set aflame’, in Callen, Following the light, 116–17.
131 Interview with Judy and Malcolm Hughes, Anderson, In, 13 July 2001.
132 Paul K. Conkin, American originals: homemade varieties of Christianity. Chapel Hill 1997, 287.
133 Charles Edwin Jones, ‘Symbol and sign in Methodist Holiness and Pentecostal spirituality’, in Timothy Miller (ed.), America's alternative religions, Albany 1995, 23.
134 Walter J. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals, London 1972, 24.
135 Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement, Grand Rapids 1971, 8.
136 The Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene (the word ‘Pentecostal’ was dropped later) and the Pilgrim Holiness Church (later to merge with the Wesleyan Methodists) were the two largest groups to actively reject the ‘tongues’ version of holiness. Pentecostal denominations that report their membership to the National Council of Churches (USA), number their membership at around 10 million (which includes both two-stage and three-stage Pentecostals). On the other hand, denominations that are Holiness, but not Pentecostal, number only 1.5 million: Conkin, American originals, 276. These figures do not, of course, include the very large number of independent Holiness, Pentecostal and Pentecostal-Holiness congregations which do not submit statistics to the National Council of Churches.
137 As examples of ‘anti-tongues’ literature among Wesleyan-Holiness churches see Wesley Duewel, The Holy Spirit and tongues, Winona Lake 1974; the General Superintendents of the Wesleyan Church, No uncertain sound: an exegetical study of 1 Corinthians 12,13,14, Marion 1975; Donald S. Metz, Speaking in tongues: a biblical analysis, Kansas City 1971; and W. T. Purkiser, Conflicting concepts of Holiness: issues in holy living, Kansas City 1953, 54–71. An attempt at rapprochement is made in Howard A. Snyder and Daniel V. Runyon, The divided flame: Wesleyans and the charismatic renewal, Grand Rapids 1986.
138 An exception to this stance is found among those Churches that held onto the three-stage way of salvation, the ‘Pentecostal Holiness’ churches, such as the Church of God (Cleveland) which affirm both a Wesleyan and Pentecostal identity.
139 ‘Declaration of faith (decisions passed at our recent assembly)’, The Church of God Evangel, 25 Sept. 1948, 1; Charles W. Conn, ‘What is the Church of God?’ reprint of ‘The editor's message’, Church of God Evangel, 19 Mar. 1956, in Church of God History and Heritage ii/1 (Summer 1998), 7; Conn, Like a mighty army, 25.
140 Wade H. Horton, ‘For such a time’, in Church of God 50th general assembly minutes, 15, cited in Crews, Church of God, 155; Ray H. Hughes, ‘A call to unity’, in Church of God 54th general assembly minutes, 19–20, cited ibid. 157; Wade H. Horton, ‘Where the spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty’, sermon delivered at the 56th General Assembly, cited ibid. 158.
141 Interview with Bill McAlpin.
142 Interview with Harold McLoud.
143 Ibid.
144 Philip Bell and Roger Bell, Implicated: the United States in Australia, Melbourne 1993, p. xii.
145 Idem, Americanization, 5.
146 Gilles Kepel, The revenge of God: the resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the modern world, State College, Pa 1994, 4–5.
147 Ibid. 124.
148 Bruce B. Lawrence, Defenders of God: the fundamentalist revolt against the modern age, San Francisco 1989, 1.
149 Bell and Bell, Americanization, 10, 12. See also Implicated, 7.
150 Piggin, ‘American and British contributions’, 291.
151 Idem, Evangelical Christianity in Australia, pp. vii–ix, 105–24.
152 Idem, ‘American and British contributions’, 291.
154 See statistical reports in ‘Church of the Nazarene Australia District Assembly Minutes’. In 1951 adult Wesleyan Methodist membership was 55 and Sunday School attendance was 557: Hardgrave, For such a time, 71.