Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T22:52:03.789Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Maternal experiences of racial discrimination and child weight status in the first 3 years of life

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2012

B. Dixon ,
S. L. Rifas-Shiman ,
T. James-Todd ,
K. Ertel ,
N. Krieger ,
K. P. Kleinman ,
J. W. Rich-Edwards ,
M. W. Gillman  and
E. M. Taveras
B. Dixon
Affiliation:
Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, USA
S. L. Rifas-Shiman
Affiliation:
Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, USA
T. James-Todd
Affiliation:
Connors Center for Women's Health and Gender Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
K. Ertel
Affiliation:
Department of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
N. Krieger
Affiliation:
Department of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
K. P. Kleinman
Affiliation:
Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, USA
J. W. Rich-Edwards
Affiliation:
Connors Center for Women's Health and Gender Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
M. W. Gillman
Affiliation:
Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, USA Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
E. M. Taveras*
Affiliation:
Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, USA Division of General Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr E. M. Taveras, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, 133 Brookline Avenue, 6th floor, Boston, MA 02215, USA. Email [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Among US racial/ethnic minority women, we examined associations between maternal experiences of racial discrimination and child growth in the first 3 years of life. We analyzed data from Project Viva, a pre-birth cohort study. We restricted analyses to 539 mother–infant pairs; 294 were Black, 127 Hispanic, 110 Asian and 8 from additional racial/ethnic groups. During pregnancy, mothers completed the Experiences of Discrimination survey that measured lifetime experiences of racial discrimination in diverse domains. We categorized responses as 0, 1–2 or ⩾3 domains. Main outcomes were birth weight for gestational age z-score; weight for age (WFA) z-score at 6 months of age; and at 3 years of age, body mass index (BMI) z-score. In multivariable analyses, we adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity, nativity, education, age, pre-pregnancy BMI, household income and child sex and age. Among this cohort of mostly (58.2%) US-born and economically non-impoverished mothers, 33% reported 0 domains of discrimination, 33% reported discrimination in 1–2 domains and 35% reported discrimination in ⩾3 domains. Compared with children whose mothers reported no discrimination, those whose mothers reported ⩾3 domains had lower birth weight for gestational age z-score (β −0.25; 95% CI: −0.45, −0.04), lower 6 month WFA z-score (β −0.34; 95% CI: −0.65, −0.03) and lower 3-year BMI z-score (β −0.33; 95% CI: −0.66, 0.00). In conclusion, we found that among this cohort of US racial/ethnic minority women, mothers’ report of experiencing lifetime discrimination in ⩾ 3 domains was associated with lower fetal growth, weight at 6 months and 3-year BMI among their offspring.

Keywords

child growthdiscriminationinfancyracism
Type
Original Article
Information
Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease , Volume 3 , Issue 6 , December 2012 , pp. 433 - 441
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and the International Society for Developmental Origins of Health and Disease 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Skinner, AC, Steiner, MJ, Henderson, FW, Perrin, EM. Multiple markers of inflammation and weight status: cross-sectional analyses throughout childhood. Pediatrics. 2010; 125, e801–e809.Google Scholar
2.Kurian, AK, Cardarelli, KM. Racial and ethnic differences in cardiovascular disease risk factors: a systematic review. Ethn Dis. 2007; 17, 143–152.Google Scholar
3.Gillman, MW, Rifas-Shiman, SL, Kleinman, K, et al. Developmental origins of childhood overweight: potential public health impact. Obesity. 2008; 16, 1651–1656.Google Scholar
4.Kuh, D, Ben-Shlomo, Y. A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology: Tracing the Origins of Ill-health From Early to Adult life, 2nd edn, 2004. Oxford University Press: London.Google Scholar
5.Oken, E, Levitan, EB, Gillman, MW. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and child overweight: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Obes (Lond). 2008; 32, 201–210.Google Scholar
6.Oken, E, Taveras, EM, Kleinman, KP, Rich-Edwards, JW, Gillman, MW. Gestational weight gain and child adiposity at age 3 years. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007; 196, 322, e321–e328.Google Scholar
7.Wright, CS, Rifas-Shiman, SL, Rich-Edwards, JW, et al. Intrauterine exposure to gestational diabetes, child adiposity, and blood pressure. Am J Hypertens. 2009; 22, 215–220.Google Scholar
8.Taveras, EM, Gillman, MW, Kleinman, K, Rich-Edwards, JW, Rifas-Shiman, SL. Racial/ethnic differences in early-life risk factors for childhood obesity. Pediatrics. 2010; 125, 686–695.Google Scholar
9.Gravlee, CC. How race becomes biology: embodiment of social inequality. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2009; 139, 47–57.Google Scholar
10.Dallman, MF, Akana, SF, Pecoraro, NC, et al. Glucocorticoids, the etiology of obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2007; 4, 199–204.Google Scholar
11.Dallman, MF, Pecoraro, NC, La Fleur, SE, et al. Glucocorticoids, chronic stress, and obesity. Prog Brain Res. 2006; 153, 75–105.Google Scholar
12.la Fleur, SE, Akana, SF, Manalo, SL, Dallman, MF. Interaction between corticosterone and insulin in obesity: regulation of lard intake and fat stores. Endocrinology. 2004; 145, 2174–2185.Google Scholar
13.Tataranni, PA, Larson, DE, Snitker, S, et al. Effects of glucocorticoids on energy metabolism and food intake in humans. Am J Physiol. 1996; 271, E317–E325.Google Scholar
14.Kramer, MR, Hogue, CR. What causes racial disparities in very preterm birth? A biosocial perspective. Epidemiol Rev. 2009; 31, 84–98.Google Scholar
15.Warne, JP. Shaping the stress response: interplay of palatable food choices, glucocorticoids, insulin and abdominal obesity. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2009; 300, 137–146.Google Scholar
16.Anderson, SE, Whitaker, RC. Attachment security and obesity in US preschool-aged children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2011; 165, 235–242.Google Scholar
17.Collins, JW Jr, David, RJ, Symons, R, et al. Low-income African-American mothers’ perception of exposure to racial discrimination and infant birth weight. Epidemiology. 2000; 11, 337–339.Google Scholar
18.Mustillo, S, Krieger, N, Gunderson, EP, et al. Self-reported experiences of racial discrimination and Black-White differences in preterm and low-birthweight deliveries: the CARDIA Study. Am J Public Health. 2004; 94, 2125–2131.Google Scholar
19.Rosenberg, L, Palmer, JR, Wise, LA, Horton, NJ, Corwin, MJ. Perceptions of racial discrimination and the risk of preterm birth. Epidemiology. 2002; 13, 646–652.Google Scholar
20.Murrell, NL. Stress, self-esteem, and racism: relationships with low birth weight and preterm delivery in African American women. J Natl Black Nurses Assoc. 1996; 8, 45–53.Google Scholar
21.Brondolo, E, Rieppi, R, Kelly, KP, Gerin, W. Perceived racism and blood pressure: a review of the literature and conceptual and methodological critique. Ann Behav Med. 2003; 25, 55–65.Google Scholar
22.Dominguez, TP, Dunkel-Schetter, C, Glynn, LM, Hobel, C, Sandman, CA. Racial differences in birth outcomes: the role of general, pregnancy, and racism stress. Health Psychol. 2008; 27, 194–203.Google Scholar
23.Dominguez, TP, Strong, EF, Krieger, N, Gillman, MW, Rich-Edwards, JW. Differences in the self-reported racism experiences of US-born and foreign-born Black pregnant women. Soc Sci Med. 2009; 69, 258–265.Google Scholar
24.Gillman, MW, Rich-Edwards, JW, Rifas-Shiman, SL, et al. Maternal age and other predictors of newborn blood pressure. J Pediatr. 2004; 144, 240–245.Google Scholar
25.Krieger, N. Racial and gender discrimination: risk factors for high blood pressure? Soc Sci Med. 1990; 30, 1273–1281.Google Scholar
26.Krieger, N, Smith, K, Naishadham, D, Hartman, C, Barbeau, EM. Experiences of discrimination: validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Soc Sci Med. 2005; 61, 1576–1596.Google Scholar
27.Oken, E, Kleinman, KP, Rich-Edwards, JW, Gillman, MW. A nearly continuous measure of birth weight for gestational age using a United States national reference. BMC Pediatr. 2003; 3, 6.Google Scholar
28.National Center for Health Statistics. CDC Growth Charts, United States, 2000. Retrieved 6 January 2012 from http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/Google Scholar
29.Shorr, IJ. How to Weigh and Measure Children, 1986. U.N.: New York.Google Scholar
30.U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. Racial and Ethnic Classifications Used in Census 2000 and Beyond, 2000. Retrieved February 8, 2011, from http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/race/racefactcb.htmlGoogle Scholar
31.Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines, 2009. Institute of Medicine, National Research Council, The National Academies Press: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
32.Cox, JL, Holden, JM, Sagovsky, R. Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Br J Psychiatr. 1987; 150, 782–786.Google Scholar
33.Raghunathan, TE, Solenberger, PW, Van Hoewyk, J. IVEware: Imputation and Variance Estimation Software User Guide, 2002. Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, Michigan; ftp://ftp.isr.umich.edu/pub/src/smp/ive/ive_user.pdfGoogle Scholar
34.Horton, NJ, Kleinman, KP. Much ado about nothing: a comparison of missing data methods and software to fit incomplete data regression models. Am Stat. 2007; 61, 79–90.Google Scholar
35.Boynton-Jarrett, R, Fargnoli, J, Suglia, SF, Zuckerman, B, Wright, RJ. Association between maternal intimate partner violence and incident obesity in preschool-aged children: results from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010; 164, 540–546.Google Scholar
36.Ertel, KA, Koenen, KC, Rich-Edwards, JW, Gillman, MW. Antenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms are differentially associated with early childhood weight and adiposity. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2010; 24, 179–189.Google Scholar
37.Kramer, MR, Hogue, CJ, Dunlop, AL, Menon, R. Preconceptional stress and racial disparities in preterm birth: an overview. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2011; 90, 1307–1316.Google Scholar
38.Ertel, KA, Koenen, KC, Rich-Edwards, JW, Gillman, MW. Maternal depressive symptoms not associated with reduced height in young children in a US prospective cohort study. PLoS One. 2010; 5, e13656.Google Scholar
39.Farrow, C, Blissett, J. Maternal cognitions, psychopathologic symptoms, and infant temperament as predictors of early infant feeding problems: a longitudinal study. Int J Eat Disord. 2006; 39, 128–134.Google Scholar
40.Farrow, CV, Blissett, JM. Is maternal psychopathology related to obesigenic feeding practices at 1 year? Obes Res. 2005; 13, 1999–2005.Google Scholar
41.Wright, CM, Parkinson, KN, Drewett, RF. The influence of maternal socioeconomic and emotional factors on infant weight gain and weight faltering (failure to thrive): data from a prospective birth cohort. Arch Dis Child. 2006; 91, 312–317.Google Scholar
42.Ong, AD, Fuller-Rowell, T, Burrow, AL. Racial discrimination and the stress process. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2009; 96, 1259–1271.Google Scholar
43.Barker, DJP, Winter, PD, Osmond, C, Margetts, B, Simmonds, SJ. Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet. 1989; 2, 577–580.Google Scholar
44.Eriksson, J, Forsen, T, Tuomilehto, J, Osmond, C, Barker, D. Fetal and childhood growth and hypertension in adult life. Hypertension. 2000; 36, 790–794.Google Scholar
45.Osmond, C, Barker, DJP, Winter, PD, Fall, CHD, Simmonds, SJ. Early growth and death from cardiovascular disease in women. BMJ. 1993; 307, 1519–1524.Google Scholar
46.Frankel, S, Elwood, P, Sweetnam, P, Yarnell, J, Davey Smith, G. Birthweight, body-mass index in middle age, and incident coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1996; 348, 1478–1480.Google Scholar
47.Rich-Edwards, JW, Stampfer, MJ, Manson, JE, et al. Birthweight and the risk of cardiovascular disease in adult women. BMJ. 1997; 315, 396–400.Google Scholar
48.Baird, J, Fisher, D, Lucas, P, et al. Being big or growing fast: systematic review of size and growth in infancy and later obesity. BMJ. 2005; 331, 929.Google Scholar
49.Monteiro, PO, Victora, CG. Rapid growth in infancy and childhood and obesity in later life – a systematic review. Obes Rev. 2005; 6, 143–154.Google Scholar
50.Emond, AM, Blair, PS, Emmett, PM, Drewett, RF. Weight faltering in infancy and IQ levels at 8 years in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Pediatrics. 2007; 120, e1051–e1058.Google Scholar