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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 26 January 2021
This article examines the Scottish Covenanters’ initiatives to revamp educational provision in the Gaidhealtachd, the Gaelic-speaking portions of Scotland, from the beginning of the Scottish Revolution in 1638 to the Cromwellian conquest of Scotland in 1651. Scholars have explored in detail the range of educational schemes pursued by central governments in the seventeenth century to “civilize” the Gaidhealtachd, but few have engaged in an analysis of Covenanting schemes and how they differed from previous endeavors. While the Statutes of Iona are probably the best-known initiative to civilize the Gaidhealtachd and extirpate the Gaelic language, Covenanter schemes both adapted such policies and further innovated in order to serve the needs of a nascent confessional state. In particular, Covenanting schemes represented a unique and pragmatic way to address the Gaidhealtachd's educational deficiencies because they sought practical accommodation of the Gaelic language and preferred the matriculation of Gaelophone scholars into the universities. These measures not only represented a new strategy for integrating the Gaelic periphery into the Scottish state but were also notable for the ways in which they incorporated Gaelophone students into Scotland's higher education orbit—a stark departure from the educational situation in Ireland. By drawing on underutilized manuscript and printed sources, this article examines how the Covenanters refurbished education in the Gaidhealtachd and posits that the Covenanter schemes represented a key facet of the broader process of state formation in 1640s Scotland.
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28 Macinnes, Clanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, 78–81; Spurlock, “Confessionalization and Clan Cohesion,” 171–72; R. Scott Spurlock, “The Laity and the Structure of the Catholic Church in Early Modern Scotland,” in Insular Christianity: Alternative Models of the Church in Britain and Ireland, c.1570–c.1700, ed. Robert Armstrong and Tadhg Ó hAnnracháin (Manchester, 2012), 231–51; Tom McInally, The Sixth Scottish University: The Scots Colleges Abroad: 1575 to 1799 (Leiden, 2012), chaps. 4–5.
29 Withrington, “Education in the 17th Century Highlands,” 62–64; Frances Shaw, The Northern and Western Islands of Scotland: Their Economy and Society in the Seventeenth Century (Edinburgh, 1980), 138–43; James Kirk, “The Jacobean Church in the Highlands, 1567–1625,” in Maclean, The Seventeenth Century in the Highlands, 24–51.
30 John Bannerman, “Literacy in the Highlands,” in The Renaissance and Reformation in Scotland: Essays in Honour of Gordon Donaldson, ed. Ian B. Cowan and Duncan Shaw (Edinburgh, 1983), 214–35, at 217; Aonghas MacCoinnich, Plantation and Civility in the North Atlantic World: The Case of the Northern Hebrides, 1570–1639 (Leiden, 2015), 160n264.
31 Reid, “‘Ane Uniformitie,’” 16–23; Howard Hotson, “‘A Generall Reformation of Common Learning’ and Its Reception in the English-Speaking World, 1560–1642,” in The Reception of Continental Reformation in Britain, ed. Polly Ha and Patrick Collinson (Oxford, 2010), 193–228, at 195–200.
32 Margaret Steele, “The ‘Politick Christian’: The Theological Background to the National Covenant,” in The Scottish National Covenant in Its British Context, ed. John Morrill (Edinburgh, 1990), 31–67.
33 Salvatore Cipriano, “Seminaries of Identity: The Universities of Scotland and Ireland in the Age of British Revolution” (PhD diss., Fordham University, 2018), chap. 3.
34 Allan I. Macinnes, Charles I and the Making of the Covenanting Movement, 1625–1641 (Edinburgh, 1991), 184–90; David Stevenson, “The General Assembly and the Commission of the Kirk, 1638–51,” Records of the Scottish Church History Society, no. 19 (1975): 59–79; David Stevenson, “Deposition of Ministers in the Church of Scotland under the Covenanters, 1638–1651,” Church History 44, no. 3 (1975): 321–35; Walter Makey, The Church of the Covenant, 1637–1651: Revolution and Social Change in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1979).
35 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 38. See also Martin MacGregor, “Gaelic Christianity? The Church in the Western Highlands and Islands of Scotland before and after the Reformation,” in Christianities in the Early Modern Celtic World, ed. Tadhg Ó hAnnracháin and Robert Armstrong (New York, 2014), 55–70.
36 Steven G. Ellis, “The Collapse of the Gaelic World, 1450–1650,” Irish Historical Studies 31, no. 124 (1999): 449–69; Jane Dawson, “The Gaidhealtachd and the Emergence of the Scottish Highlands,” in British Consciousness and Identity: The Making of Britain, 1533–1707, ed. Brendan Bradshaw and Peter Roberts (Cambridge, 1998), 259–300; Martin MacGregor, “Civilising Gaelic Scotland: The Scottish Isles and the Stewart Empire,” in The Plantation of Ulster: Ideology and Practice, ed. Micheál Ó Siochrú and Éamonn Ó Ciardha (Manchester, 2012), 33–54.
37 Theiss, “The Western Highlands and Isles,” chap. 7; David Stevenson, Alasdair MacColla and the Highland Problem in the Seventeenth Century (Edinburgh, 1980), chaps. 6–9; Jane H. Ohlmeyer, Civil War and Restoration in the Three Stuart Kingdoms: The Career of Randal MacDonnell, Marquis of Antrim, 1609–1683 (Cambridge, 1993), chap. 3; Barry Robertson, Royalists at War in Scotland and Ireland, 1638–1650 (Burlington, 2014), chap. 6.
38 The Journals of the House of Commons of the Kingdom of Ireland, vol. 1, 1613–1666 (Dublin, 1796), 279.
39 Register of Trinity College, Dublin, 1660–1740, MUN/V/5/2, p. 5, Trinity College Dublin; Ford, “Who Went to Trinity?,” 70, 74.
40 Grievances of the Peers and Gentry of Ireland, 25 March 1642, Trinity College Dublin MS 840 fols. 25r–26v; Timothy Corcoran, ed., State Policy in Irish Education, A.D. 1536 to 1816 (Dublin, 1916), 68–69.
41 See Ethan Howard Shagan, “Constructing Discord: Ideology, Propaganda, and English Responses to the Irish Rebellion of 1641,” Journal of British Studies 36, no. 1 (1997): 4–34.
42 Robert Baillie, The Letters and Journals of Robert Baillie, ed. David Laing, 3 vols. (Edinburgh, 1841), 2:477.
43 Silke Stroh, Gaelic Scotland in the Colonial Imagination: Anglophone Writing from 1600 to 1900 (Evanston, 2017), 37–43; Colin Kidd, British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600–1800 (Cambridge, 1999), 123–31.
44 See Durkacz, Decline of the Celtic Languages, 10.
45 Macinnes, Clanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, chap. 1; Dawson, “Calvinism and the Gaidhealtachd,” 231–33; Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, chaps. 2–3. See also Stroh, Gaelic Scotland, 36–37; Keith M. Brown, Noble Power in Scotland from the Reformation to the Revolution (Edinburgh, 2011), chap. 2.
46 Commissioners’ Report Regarding Glasgow University, 1641, Glasgow University Archives 26754, fol. 6r. The report was based on Glasgow principal John Strang's petition for additional divinity professors and Robert Baillie's proposal for new professorships and bursars. See Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 2:450–1; Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 262; Baillie, Letters and Journals, 1:399–400; Commission for Visiting the Universities and Colleges of Scotland, Evidence, Oral and Documentary, Taken and Received by the Commissioners Appointed by His Majesty George IV [. . .] for Visiting the Universities of Scotland, 4 vols. (London, 1837), 2:255–56.
47 MacDonald, Missions to the Gaels, 33–34; Ó Maolalaigh, Forsyth, and MacCoinnich, “Clans and the University;” Iain G. MacDonald, Clerics and Clansmen: The Diocese of Argyll between the Twelfth and Sixteenth Centuries (Leiden, 2013), chap. 5; Roibeard Ó Maolalaigh, Katherine Forsyth, and Aonghas MacCoinnich, “15th & 16th Centuries,” The Gaelic Story at the University of Glasgow, accessed 1 October 2018, https://sgeulnagaidhlig.ac.uk/15th-16th-c/?lang=en.
48 Letter, Argyll to Principal John Strang of Glasgow, 16 February 1643, Glasgow University Archives 43183; Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:97, 101; J. R. N. Macphail, ed., Highland Papers, 4 vols. (Edinburgh, 1914–1934), 1:134. See also Cosmo Innes, ed., The Book of the Thanes of Cawdor: A Series of Papers Selected from the Charter Room at Cawdor, 1236–1742 (Edinburgh, 1859), xxxi; Janay Nugent, “‘Your Louing Childe and Foster’: The Fostering of Archie Campbell of Argyll, 1633–39,” in Children and Youth in Premodern Scotland, ed. Janay Nugent and Elizabeth Ewan (Woodbridge, 2015), 47–64. On Argyll's time at St. Andrews, see Allan I. Macinnes, The British Confederate: Archibald Campbell, Marquess of Argyll, c. 1607–1661 (Edinburgh, 2011), 66–68.
49 Baillie, Letters and Journals, 2:47; MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:9, 17.
50 Dictionary of the Scots Language Online, s.v., “Bursar, Burser, n.,” accessed 3 March 2017, http://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/dost/bursar#; John Kerr, Scottish Education: School and University—From Early Times to 1908 with an Addendum 1908–1913 (Cambridge, 1913), 55–56; Hilde de Ridder-Symoens, “Management and Resources,” in de Ridder-Symoens, Universities in Early Modern Europe, 154–209, at 188.
51 See J. D. Marwick, ed., Extracts from the Records of the Burgh of Glasgow, A.D. 1630–1662 (Glasgow, 1881), 16–17, 43–44; Cosmo Innes, ed., Fasti Aberdonenses: Selections from the Records of the University and King's College of Aberdeen, 1494–1854 (Aberdeen, 1854), 89–90, 112, 120–30, 149–54, 207–10, 248–54, 272–76. For registers of bursars at Glasgow and St. Andrews, see Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:257–60; Faculty of Arts Bursars’ Book, 1637–1651, UYUY412, fol. 113r–27v, St. Andrews University Library.
52 Ó Maolalaigh, Forsyth, and MacCoinnich, “Clans and the University”; Macinnes, Clanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, xiv–xv, 2–9; Allan I. Macinnes, “Crown, Clans and Fine: The ‘Civilizing’ of Scottish Gaeldom, 1587–1638,” Northern Scotland 13, no. 1 (1993): 31–55, at 31.
53 Notes of Acts of the General Assembly, 21 July–9 August 1641, Laing Manuscripts, Division 1, 305/2, fol. Br, Edinburgh University Library; Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 294; RPS A1641/8/7.
54 Dawson, “Calvinism and the Gaidhealtachd,” 243–45. See also James Kirk, ed., The Records of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, 1589–1596, 1640–1649 (Edinburgh, 1977), 175, 182.
55 RPS A1641/8/8.
56 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 327.
57 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1623–1644, CH2/271/1, pp. 206, 214, National Records of Scotland, Edinburgh (hereafter NRS).
58 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1623–1644, NRS CH2/271/1, p. 227.
59 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:39, 47.
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61 MacTavish, 1:66–67, 79.
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67 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1623–1644, NRS CH2/271/1, p. 239.
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73 RPS 1644/6/211.
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75 RPS 1645/11/185.
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81 Register of Acts Agreed Upon by the Commissioners of the Scottish University, 1647–1649, Glasgow University Archives 26790, pp. 2, 7.
82 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:106, 114–15, 117.
83 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 510.
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88 Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 1:70–72, 74, 173–74. See also Allan I. Macinnes, “The Impact of the Civil Wars and Interregnum: Political Disruption and Social Change within Scottish Gaeldom,” in Economy and Society in Scotland and Ireland, 1500–1939, ed. Rosalind Mitchison and Peter Roebuck (Edinburgh, 1988), 58–69, at 58–61.
89 Macinnes, British Confederate, 225, 245–46.
90 Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 1:252; Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 520.
91 Synod of Moray Minutes, 1644–1688, NRS CH2/271/2, p. 92; Mitchell and Christie, Records of the Commissions, 2:118–19; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 6:460.
92 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 515. For the scheme's execution, see William Cramond, ed., Extracts from the Records of the Synod of Moray (Elgin, 1906), 92–93, 107; William Mackay, ed., Records of the Presbyteries of Inverness and Dingwall, 1643–1688 (Edinburgh, 1896), 162–63, 164, 166–67, 169, 178, 216–18; Stuart, John, ed., Extracts from the Presbytery Book of Strathbogie, A.D. 1631–1654 (Aberdeen, 1843), 174Google Scholar.
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95 Dalkeith Kirk Session Minutes, 13 March 1649, NRS CH2/84/1, fol. 44.
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99 RPS 1649/5/115.
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101 MacTavish, 1:143, 155.
102 See, for example, Heinz Schilling, “Confessional Europe,” in Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, vol. 2, Visions, Programs, and Outcomes, ed. Thomas A. Brady, Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy (Leiden, 1995), 641–81, at 642–44, 647–66, 658–50.
103 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 552–53.
104 Dalkeith Presbytery Minutes, May 1649, NRS CH2/424/3, fol. 313; Dalkeith Kirk Sessions Minutes, 17 March 1650, NRS CH2/84/1, fol. 56v.
105 Peebles Presbytery Minutes, January 1650, NRS CH2/295/4, fol. 7v.
106 Canongate Kirk Session Minutes, October 1649, NRS CH2/122/4, fol. 28.
107 Kinloch, Ecclesiastical Records: Minutes of St. Andrews and Cupar, 49.
108 Dunfermline Kirk Session Minutes, 9 April 1650, NRS CH2/592/1/1, fol. 109v; Dunfermline Presbytery Minutes, 29 May 1650, NRS CH2/105/1/1, fol. 125.
109 Lanark Presbytery Minutes, 12 June 1651, NRS CH2/234/1, fol. 478; Tealing Kirk Session Minutes, 3 August 1651, NRS CH2/352/1, fol. 57.
110 Brechin Presbytery Minutes, April 1649, NRS CH2/40/1, fol. 104.
111 Durkan, Scottish Schools and Schoolmasters, 272–73.
112 See Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, chaps. 4–5.
113 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 510; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:5–6, 9; Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:103.
114 Peterkin, Records of the Kirk, 510.
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117 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:153.
118 Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:34; Laing, David, ed., A Catalogue of the Graduates of the Faculties of Arts, Divinity, and Law, of the University of Edinburgh, since Its Foundation (Edinburgh, 1858), 64Google Scholar.
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122 Baxter, Minutes of the Synod of Fife, 165.
123 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:159 and 159n1; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:6.
124 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:153.
125 Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:29; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:9.
126 Innes, Munimenta Alme Universitatis Glasguensis, 3:29; Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, 4:16.
127 Register of Acts Agreed Upon by the Commissioners of the Scottish Universities, 1647–1649, Glasgow University Archives 26790, p. 4.
128 MacKinnon, “Education in Argyll and the Isles,” 50.
129 See Scott, Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, vol. 4.
130 MacTavish, Minutes of the Synod of Argyll, 1:185–86, 208, 222–23, 2:3, 15, 35, 40–41; Roibeard Ó Maolalaigh, Katherine Forsyth, and Aonghas MacCoinnich, “17th Century—The Church and Education,” The Gaelic Story at the University of Glasgow, accessed 30 September 2018, https://sgeulnagaidhlig.ac.uk/17thc-argyll-the-synod/?lang=en; Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, 33.
131 Withers, Gaelic in Scotland, 34–37; Withers, Gaelic Scotland, 116–36.