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Radical Steele: Popular Politics and the Limits of Authority

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 May 2019

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Abstract

In modern critical imagination, Richard Steele is almost always seen as Joseph Addison's friend and collaborator, as half of the periodical essay-writing team devoted to the promotion of civility, urbanity, and a moral and well-mannered lifestyle. Scholars focus almost exclusively on the Tatler, the Spectator, and Steele's sentimental drama, The Conscious Lovers (1722), virtually ignoring his substantial canon of party journalism and pamphlets. Partly because of Steele's bitter and extensive quarrel with Jonathan Swift—or because most scholars assume that Swift got the best of him—he is now rarely taken seriously as a political player in late Stuart and early Hanoverian England. This essay focuses on Steele the party writer—and especially on his attitude toward religio-political authority and the sanctity of vox populi. Though Steele is now described as (like Addison) “not so enthusiastic about the potential for public politics,” he was for excellent reasons regarded by contemporaries as a writer not only trying to politicize the people but actually succeeding in doing so. This essay attempts to recontextualize Steele's polemical contributions; he has been read alongside Addison and other Whig wits, but he rarely figures in discussions of the history of political ideas in early eighteenth-century England, in discussions of debates about authority, resistance, and the nature of obligation, about public religion and liberty of conscience, the political implications of heterodoxy, and the use of reason as a challenge to dogmatic clerical authority.

Type
Original Manuscript
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 58 , Issue 2 , April 2019 , pp. 338 - 365
Copyright
Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies 2019 

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References

1 Preface to Remarks upon the Truth, Design, and Seasonableness of Sir Richard Steele's Dedication to the Pope (London, 1715).

2 Brian McCrea has studied the decline of Addison's and Steele's stock among literary scholars; Addison and Steele Are Dead: The English Department, Its Canon, and the Professionalization of Literary Criticism (Newark, 1990). His answer involves the evolving biases of academics and the resistance of Addison's and Steele's canon (which here amounts only to the Tatler and the Spectator) to advanced critical methods.

3 Winton, Calhoun, Captain Steele: The Early Career of Richard Steele (Baltimore, 1964), vi, 212Google Scholar.

4 Knight, Charles A., A Political Biography of Richard Steele (London, 2009), 2Google Scholar.

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6 Winton, Calhoun, Sir Richard Steele, M.P.: The Later Career (Baltimore, 1970), 239Google Scholar.

7 Knight, Political Biography, 7. Winton describes Steele as a “political amateur.” Winton, Captain Steele, 109.

8 Cowan, Brian, “Mr. Spectator and the Coffeehouse Public Sphere,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 37, no. 3 (April 2004): 345–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 346.

9 Justin Champion has written voluminously and always compellingly on this subject. For example, see The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken: The Church of England and Its Enemies, 1660–1730 (Cambridge, 1992); Champion, “‘My Kingdom Is Not of This World’: The Politics of Religion after the Revolution,” in The English Revolution, c. 1590–1720: Politics, Religion and Communities, ed. Nicholas Tyacke (Manchester, 2007), 185–202. Several of Mark Goldie's contributions could likewise be cited; see Goldie, , “Civil Religion and the English Enlightenment,” in Politics, Politeness and Patriotism, ed. Schochet, Gordon J., Brobeck, Carol, and Tatspaugh, Patricia Elizabeth (Washington, 1993), 31–46Google Scholar; Goldie, , “Priestcraft and the Birth of Whiggism,” in Political Discourse in Early Modern Britain, ed. Phillipson, Nicholas and Skinner, Quentin (Cambridge, 1993), 209–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 The Antidote, nos. 1 and 2 (1719) are counted here as separate pamphlets rather than as a periodical. This number does not include Steele's 1723 contributions (nos. 46 and 51) to the political paper Pasquin. Steele's pamphlets and some of his journalistic contributions are collected in Rae Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets by Richard Steele (1944; repr. New York, 1967).

11 For example, see Oldisworth, William, Examiner 5, no. 43 (26 April 1714)Google Scholar. The entirety of the Examiner is available digitally as part of the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Burney Newspapers Collection.

12 Steele challenged the validity of hereditary right on multiple occasions, including in his 1714 “Mr. Steele's Apology for Himself and his Writings,” in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 279–346, at 303. Elsewhere, he argued, “In many Nations the Eldest Son is not Heir to his Father's Estate, and no Man ever thought this a Breach of the Law of God; much less is it a Law of God to make a Man Successor to his Father's Office; and, to be a King, is to bear the highest Office in Humane Society.” Richard Steele, The British Subject's Answer to the Pretender's Declaration (1716), in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 393–401, at 398.

13 Winton, Sir Richard Steele, 182.

14 Bisset, Robert, The Spectator, with Illustrative Notes. To which are prefixed the Lives of the Authors (London, 1799), 87Google Scholar. See also Montgomery, Henry R., Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Sir Richard Steele, Soldier, Dramatist, Essayist, and Patriot, 2 vols. (Edinburgh, 1865), 1:17Google Scholar.

15 Knight, Political Biography, 26.

16 Richard Steele, The Christian Hero, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 5–62, at 22.

17 Richard Steele, Englishman, no. 14 (26 August 1715), in The Englishman: A Political Journal, ed. Rae Blanchard (London, 1955), at 307. The volume contains both series of the Englishman.

18 Champion, “‘My Kingdom,’” 196.

19 Steele, The Christian Hero, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 61.

20 Steele would agree with John Toland: “It being therefore for the good of the whole Community, and for every individual Member thereof, that Men enter into Society, they agree among themselves (or by such as they authorize to represent them) on certain Rules and Laws, which are to be the Measure and Standard of every Man's Actions.” Toland, Anglia Libera: or The Limitation and Succession of the Crown of England explain'd and asserted (London, 1701), 2.

21 Steele, The Christian Hero, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 54.

22 Steele, The Christian Hero, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 55.

23 Richard Steele, The Tatler, no. 187 (20 June 1710), in The Tatler, ed. Donald F. Bond, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1987), 3:18.

24 In The Importance of the Guardian Considered (London, 1713), for example, Jonathan Swift reflected that initially the Tatler was “equally esteemed by both Parties, because it meddled with neither. But, sometime after Sacheverell’s Tryal, when Things began to change their Aspect; Mr. St[eele] … would needs corrupt his Paper with Politicks.” Swift, English Political Writings, 1711–14: The Conduct of the Allies and Other Works, ed. Bertrand A. Goldgar and Ian Gadd (Cambridge, 2008), 221.

25 Steele, Richard, Spectator, nos. 103 (28 June 1711)Google Scholar and 64 (14 May 1711), in The Spectator, ed. Bond, Donald F., 5 vols. (Oxford, 1965)Google Scholar, 1:430, 1:275–76.

26 Richard Steele, Spectator, no. 200 (19 October 1711), in Bond, ed., The Spectator, 2:282.

27 Richard Steele, The Englishman's Thanks to the Duke of Marlborough (1712), in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 69–71, at 69.

28 Steele, The Englishman's Thanks, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 74.

29 Steele, The Englishman's Thanks, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 74–76.

30 Steele, The Englishman's Thanks, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 77.

31 Steele, The Englishman's Thanks, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 70.

32 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 121–81, at 157, 159.

33 Richard Steele, Guardian, no. 128 (7 August 1713), in The Guardian, ed. John Calhoun Stephens (Lexington, 1982), 426. In another pamphlet, Steele continued to make demands: “All that is of Consequence to us is, that Dunkirk should be no longer a Receptacle for Ships, and the Demolition of it as a Garrison is of much less Consideration, if not wholly insignificant to us.” Richard Steele, The French Faith Represented in the Present State of Dunkirk, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 259–73, at 263.

34 Richard Steele, Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 87–124, at 95.

35 Steele, Guardian, no. 128, in Stephens, ed., The Guardian, 426; Steele, Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 95.

36 Elsewhere he maintained explicitly that “it is an undoubted Truth, that Men have as much Right to the Means of Knowledge as to the Means of Life.” Richard Steele, A Letter to a Member of Parliament Concerning the Bill for Preventing the Growth of Schism (1714), in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 241–54, at 245.

37 Steele, The Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 111.

38 John Toland, Dunkirk or Dover; or, The Queen's Honour, The Nation's Safety, The Liberties of Europe, and The Peace of the World, All at Stake till that Fort and Port be totally demolish'd by the French (London, 1713), 22.

39 Toland, Dunkirk or Dover, 37.

40 Steele, The Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 112.

41 Steele, The Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 113.

42 John Toland, The Memorial of the State of England (1705), 77. In July 1721, John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon would complain that the people “have been formerly stunned with the big word prerogative, by those who contend for unlimited loyalty”; Ronald Hamowy, ed., Cato's Letter, 24 vols. (Indianapolis, 1995), 1:258.

43 Steele, The Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 112.

44 Steele, The Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 123.

45 Cowan, “Mr. Spectator,” 346.

46 Richard Steele, Englishman, no. 1 (6 October 1713), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 5.

47 Steele, Englishman, no. 1, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 14.

48 Steele, Englishman, no. 3 (14 October 1713), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 75–76.

49 Steele, Englishman, no. 3, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 76.

50 Steele, Englishman, no. 3, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 75–76.

51 Steele, Englishman, 115; see also 128, 167–68, 184.

52 Toland, The Art of Governing by Parties (London, 1701), 3.

53 Richard Steele, Englishman, no. 55 (9 February 1714), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 219–22. In his Apology, Steele returned to the “Word Hereditary,” which “teems with so many Disputes, and which, according to my Notion of it, is inconsistent with Succession in the House of Hanover, which cannot be come at but by passing over many of those who are the next Heirs in Blood.” Steele, Mr. Steele's Apology for Himself and his Writings, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 303.

54 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 130.

55 Steele, Englishman, no. 2 (8 October 1713), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 13.

56 Steele, Englishman, no. 8, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 37.

57 For a good discussion of the public letter in the Spectator, see Polly, Greg, “A Leviathan of Letters,” in The Spectator: Emerging Discourses, ed. Newman, Donald J. (Newark, 2005), 105–28Google Scholar.

58 Steele, Englishman, no. 6 (17 October 1713), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 30.

59 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 134.

60 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 137.

61 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 141.

62 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 149.

63 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 181.

64 As Knight rightly observes, Steele “used his authority as a moral writer, an authority manifested in the highly popular Tatler and Spectator, to claim an analogous authority as a political writer.” Knight, Political Biography, 2.

65 Blanchard offers this catalogue: Steele's “Irish birth and obscure parentage; his insolence and ingratitude to the Queen and her ministers; his lack of veracity; his low-life friends; his bad grammar and faulty style; his association with deists; his arrest and imprisonment for debt; his experiments in alchemy; his fame as a writer due to the work of others; his unfitness for political writing; and the forecast that he would not be allowed to take his seat in the Commons.” Quote from Blanchard's endnotes on Englishman, no. 37, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 431.

66 Swift, The Importance of the Guardian Considered, in Goldgar and Gadd, eds., English Political Writings, 233, 230.

67 Remarks on Mr. Steele's Crisis (London, 1714), 13.

68 Swift, The First Ode of the Second Book of Horace Paraphras'd (London, 1714), 5.

69 Dedication to Remarks upon the Truth […] of Sir Richard Steele's Dedication to the Pope (London, 1715). See also The Honour and Prerogative of the Queen's Majesty Vindicated […] against The Unexampled Insolence of the Author of the Guardian (London, 1713).

70 The Life of Cato the Censor (London, 1714), A2.

71 Jack the Courtier's Answer to Dick the Englishman's Close Of the Paper so call'd (London, 1714), 5.

72 Burnet and Bradbury, or the Confederacy of the Press and the Pulpit for the Blood of the Last Ministry (London, 1715), 19.

73 Dennis, John, The Sheltering Poet's Invitation to Sir Richard Steele (London, 1714), 7Google Scholar.

74 A Letter to Richard Steele, Esq; (London, 1715), 5. P. B. J. Hyland attributes this letter to Edmund Powell, who “absconded in July 1715 after the government had deemed” this pamphlet “a treasonable offence.” “Liberty and Libel: Government and the Press during the Succession Crisis in Britain, 1712–16,” English Historical Review 101, no. 401 (October 1986): 863–88Google Scholar, at 883.

75 Daniel Defoe to Robert Harley, 19 February 1714, in The Letters of Daniel Defoe, ed. George Harris Healey (Oxford, 1955), 430; Defoe to Harley, 10 March 1714, in Healy, ed., The Letters of Daniel Defoe, 433–38, is a lengthy rejoinder to Steele's Crisis.

76 A Letter to Mr. Steele, Concerning the Removal of the Pretender from Lorrain (London, 1714), 10.

77 A Letter to Mr. Steele, 12.

78 A Letter to Mr. Steele, 20.

79 A Letter to Mr. Steele, 22.

80 Knight, Political Biography, 2.

81 Champion, Justin, “Political Thinking between the Restoration and Hanoverian Succession,” in A Companion to Stuart Britain, ed. Coward, Barry (Malden, 2003), 474–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 485.

82 Toland, Anglia Libera, 26.

83 [John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon], The Independent Whig (London, 1721), 333.

84 John Loftis, ed., Introduction to Richard Steele's The Theatre (1720), (Oxford, 1962), xxvii.

85 Steele, Englishman, no. 1 (6 October 1713), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 10.

86 I have argued this in a book-length work (currently entitled Political Journalism in London), which is now under review at a press.

87 Ashley Marshall, “Recontextualizing Richard Steele: Bishop Hoadly and Reformist Whiggery,” Huntington Library Quarterly (forthcoming).

88 Rorty, Richard, “Anticlericalism and Atheism,” in Rorty, Richard and Vattimo, Gianni, The Future of Religion, ed. Zabala, Santiago (New York, 2004), 29–41Google Scholar, at 33.

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93 Marshall, John, John Locke: Resistance, Religion and Responsibility (Cambridge, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 13, 22, 101, 108, 110. See also Harris, Tim, Seaward, Paul, and Goldie, Mark, eds., The Politics of Religion in Restoration England (Oxford, 1990)Google Scholar, especially Harris's introduction and Goldie's contribution on the Whigs’ hostility to the prelacy.

94 Sirota, Brent S., The Christian Monitors: The Church of England and the Age of Benevolence, 1680–1730 (New Haven, 2014), 151CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Sirota's study is concerned with Anglican revivalism, the renewed efforts at better pastoral care, the increase in devotional writing, and the amplified commitment to the reformation of manners movement. Chapter 4 (“Sacerdotalism and Civil Society”) is particularly relevant to the discussion of late Stuart anticlericalism and the Anglican response.

95 Richard Steele, Englishman, no. 6 (29 July 1715), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 278.

96 Richard Steele, A Letter to a Member of Parliament, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 246.

97 Steele, The Crisis, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 129.

98 Steele, Englishman, no. 55, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 219.

99 Steele, Englishman, no. 55, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 219, 224.

100 Champion, Justin, “‘The Kingdom of Darkness’: Hobbes and Heterodoxy,” in The Intellectual Consequences of Religious Heterodoxy, 1600–1750, ed. Mortimer, Sarah and Robertson, John (Leiden, 2012), 95–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 99.

101 Champion, “Political Thinking,” 475.

102 Steele, Englishman, no. 14 (26 August 1715), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 307.

103 [Trenchard and Gordon,] Independent Whig, xvii–xviii.

104 Steele, Englishman, no. 37 (18 November 1715), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 397.

105 Steele, A Letter to a Member of Parliament, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 249.

106 Marshall, Ashley, “Steele's Rhetorical Duel with the Authors of the Examiner,” Swift Studies 34 (2019), 67–89Google Scholar.

107 Addison, Joseph, The Present State of the War, and the Necessity of an Augmentation, Consider'd (London, 1708), 8–9Google Scholar.

108 Wilson, Kathleen, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture and Imperialism in England, 1715–1785 (Cambridge, 1995), 94Google Scholar.

109 Addison, Joseph, Freeholder, no. 1 (23 December 1715)Google Scholar, in The Freeholder, ed. Leheny, James (Oxford, 1979), 41Google Scholar.

110 Addison, Freeholder, no. 1, in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 41.

111 Addison, Freeholder, no. 1, in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 43.

112 Joseph Addison, Freeholder, no. 5 (6 January 1716), in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 59.

113 Addison, Freeholder, no. 53 (22 June 1716), in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 264–65.

114 Addison, Freeholder, no. 55 (29 June 1716), in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 271.

115 Addison, Freeholder, no. 6 (9 January 1716), in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 65.

116 Knight, Political Biography, 214.

117 Addison, Freeholder, no. 10 (23 January 1716), in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 82.

118 Richard Steele, Town-Talk (December 1715–February 1716) in Blanchard, Rae, ed., Steele's Periodical Journalism, 1714–16 (Oxford, 1959), 234Google Scholar.

119 Rogers, Nicholas, “Popular Protest in Early Hanoverian London,” Past and Present 79, no. 1 (May 1978): 70–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 83.

120 Rogers, “Popular Protest,” 73–75. As Kathleen Wilson explains, “Free rein [was] given to Whig loyalists, troops and militiamen to harass and assault—or even kill—Tory and Jacobite demonstrators,” and the failed rebellion of 1715 served to “legitimize … invasive government measures.” Wilson, Sense of the People, 98.

121 Steele, Englishman, no. 1 (11 July 1715), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 254.

122 Steele, Englishman, no. 1, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 252.

123 Steele, Englishman, no. 1, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 255.

124 Steele, Englishman, no. 3 (18 July 1715).

125 Steele, Englishman, no. 1, in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 262.

126 Steele, Englishman, no. 22 (23 Sept 1715).

127 Steele, Englishman, no. 22.

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129 Addison, Freeholder, no. 25 (16 March 1716), in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 144.

130 George A. Aitken includes this material in his The Life of Richard Steele, 2 vols. (London, 1889; repr., New York, 1968), 2:82–83.

131 For example, see Winton, Sir Richard Steele, 83; Knight, Political Biography, 220.

132 Turner, Edward Raymond, “The Peerage Bill of 1719,” English Historical Review 28, no. 110 (April 1913): 243–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 243. For more background, see Naylor, John F., The British Aristocracy and the Peerage Bill of 1719 (New York, 1968)Google Scholar.

133 Turner, “Peerage Bill,” 248.

134 Richard Steele, Letter to the Earl of O[xfor]d, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 523–38, at 526.

135 Steele, Letter to the Earl of O[xfor]d, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 529.

136 Richard Steele, The Joint and Humble Address of the Tories and Whigs Concerning the Bill of Peerage (1719), in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 497–500, at 498.

137 Winton, Sir Richard Steele, 34.

138 Justin Champion, “‘Anglia Libera’: Commonwealth Politics in the Early Years of George I,” in Womersley et al., eds., Cultures of Whiggism, 86–107, at 97.

139 Richard Steele, Englishman, no. 25 (1 December 1713), in Blanchard, ed., The Englishman, 103.

140 Turner, “The Peerage Bill of 1719,” 251–52.

141 Smithers, Peter, The Life of Joseph Addison, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1968), 452Google Scholar.

142 Champion, “Anglia Libera,” 99.

143 Smithers, Life of Joseph Addison, 450.

144 Walpole had defended Steele in 1714, and Steele's Apology of that year was dedicated to him. Though he sometimes disagreed with Walpole in Parliament, he wrote on his behalf—and perhaps was paid to do so—from 1717 to 1722. Knight notes the commonality among anti-Peerage Bill writings, suggesting that a “stable of writers was at work here, either under Walpole directly or under Steele at Walpole's behest.” Knight, Political Biography, 226.

145 “Sir Richard Steele's Speech against Committing the Peerage Bill,” in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 543–45.

146 Champion, “Anglia Libera,” 104.

147 Pocock, J. G. A., “The Varieties of Whiggism from Exclusion to Reform: A History of Ideology and Discourse,” in Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1985), 215–310CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 237.

148 Graham, Walter, ed., The Letters of Joseph Addison (Oxford, 1941)Google Scholar, 280, 281.

149 Addison, The Present State of the War, 16.

150 Graham, ed., The Letters of Joseph Addison, 60.

151 Addison, Freeholder, no. 1, in Leheny, ed., The Freeholder, 40.

152 Steele, Importance of Dunkirk Consider'd, in Blanchard, ed., Tracts and Pamphlets, 115.

153 Marshall, Political Journalism in London, chap. 5.