¹ See Lake, Peter, “Anti-Popery: The Structure of a Prejudice,” in Conflict in Early Stuart England: Studies in Religion and Politics 1603–1642, ed. Cust, Richard and Hughes, Ann (London and New York, 1989), 72–106Google Scholar; Cogswell, Thomas, “The People's Love: The Duke of Buckingham and Popularity,” in Politics, Religion and Popularity in Early Stuart Britain: Essays in Honour of Conrad Russell, ed. Cogswell, Thomas, Cust, Richard, and Lake, Peter (Cambridge, 2002), 211–34Google Scholar; Cust, Richard, “Was There an Alternative to the Personal Rule? Charles I, the Privy Council and the Parliament of 1629,” History 90, no. 299 (July 2005): 330–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Withington, Phil, The Politics of Commonwealth: Citizens and Freemen in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cust, Richard, “The ‘Public Man’ in Late Tudor and Early Stuart England,” in The Politics of the Public Sphere in Early Modern England, ed. Lake, Peter and Pincus, Steven (Manchester, 2007), 116–43Google Scholar; Paul E. J. Hammer, “The Smiling Crocodile: the Earl of Essex and Late Elizabethan ‘Popularity,’” in Lake and Pincus, 95–115; Cesare Cuttica, “Kentish Cousins at Odds: Filmer's Patriarcha and Thomas Scott's Defence of Freeborn Englishmen,” History of Political Thought 28, no. 4 (Winter 2007): 599–616Google Scholar; Lake, Peter, “‘The Monarchical Republic of Queen Elizabeth I’ (and the Fall of Archbishop Grindal) Revisited,” in The Monarchical Republic of Early Modern England: Essays in Response to Patrick Collinson, ed. McDiarmid, John F. (Aldershot, 2007), 129–47Google Scholar; Gajda, Alexandra, The Earl of Essex and Late Elizabethan Political Culture (Oxford, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; The Elizabethan Top Ten: Defining Print Popularity in Early Modern England, ed. Kesson, Andy and Smith, Emma (Aldershot, 2013)Google Scholar; Popular Sovereignty in Historical Perspective, ed. Bourke, Richard and Skinner, Quentin (Cambridge, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Journal of British Studies 56, no. 4 (October 2017): 709–854CrossRefGoogle Scholar, with articles by Laura Stewart, Peter Lake, and others.

² Peter Lake, “The Politics of ‘Popularity’ and the Public Sphere: the ‘Monarchical Republic’ of Elizabeth I Defends Itself,” in Lake and Pincus, The Politics of the Public Sphere, 59–94, at 87.

³ Here democratic means the common people's participation in decision-making and the plebeian pursuit of equality; republican entails elective oligarchies and educated citizens being in charge; and populist refers to demagogic pandering to the multitudes on the part of aristocrats or to politicians strategically engaging in spin.

⁴ See, for example, Doty, Jeffrey S., Shakespeare, Popularity and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ See, for example, Collinson, Patrick, “Antipuritanism,” in The Cambridge Companion to Puritanism, ed. Coffey, John and Lim, Paul (Cambridge, 2008), 19–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷ Whitgift, John, The defense of the aunsvvere to the Admonition against the replie of T.C. (London, 1574)Google Scholar, A4r.

⁸ See, for example, Lake, Peter, Anglicans and Puritans? Presbyterianism and English Conformist Thought from Whitgift to Hooker (London, 1988), 59Google Scholar.

⁹ Whitgift, The defense, 171.

¹⁰ Lake, Anglicans, esp. 53–64. Lake, however, did not focus on popularity as democratic experiment (see 129–35).

¹¹ Representation constituted a form of disempowerment of the people; it symbolized their renunciation to direct agency. See, for example, Arnold, Oliver, The Third Citizen. Shakespeare's Theater and the Early Modern House of Commons (Baltimore, 2007)Google Scholar, 4, 12, 24.

¹² See, for example, Whitgift, The defense, 377.

¹³ See Whitgift, John, A godlie sermon preched before the Queenes Maiestie at Grenevvich the 26. of March last past by Doctor VVhitgift Deane of Lincolne (London, 1574)Google Scholar.

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²⁰ Rollison, David, A Commonwealth of the People: Popular Politics and England's Long Social Revolution, 1066–1649 (Cambridge, 2010), 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²¹ Wormald, Jenny, “Ecclesiastical Vitriol: The Kirk, the Puritans and the Future King of England,” in The Reign of Elizabeth I: Court and Culture in the Last Decade, ed. Guy, John (1995; repr., Cambridge 1999), 171–91Google Scholar, esp. 189–90.

²² James Sharpe, “Social Strain and Social Dislocation, 1585–1603,” in Guy, Reign of Elizabeth I, 192–211, at 198.

²³ A Lamentable Complaint of the Commonalty, by way of supplication to the high court of Parliament, for a learned ministery (London, 1585), A3r, A3v, A5v, D5v, D6r.

²⁴ See Arnold, The Third Citizen, 36–37.

²⁵ Matthew Sutcliffe, A remonstrance […] (London, 1590), 40.

²⁶ Sutcliffe, A remonstrance, 78.

²⁷ Sutcliffe, 90.

²⁸ Sutcliffe, 83.

²⁹ Sutcliffe, 82.

³⁰ See Lake, Peter, How Shakespeare Put Politics on the Stage. Power and Succession in the History Plays (New Haven, 2016), 467Google Scholar. Lake does not deal with “popularity” in the sense studied in this article but looks at it from the populist angle.

³¹ Sutcliffe, A remonstrance, 92, 83.

³² Sutcliffe, 98.

³³ See Head, Randolph C., Early Modern Democracy in the Grisons: Social Order and Political Language in a Swiss Mountain Canton, 1470–1620 (Cambridge, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁴ John Guy, “Introduction: The 1590s: The Second Reign of Elizabeth I?,” in The Reign, 1–19, at 1.

³⁵ Guy, “Introduction,” 11.

³⁶ In their plan to abolish episcopacy and stage a coup against Elizabeth, the self-proclaimed messianic popular prophet William Hacket (d. 1591) and his co-conspirators had been motivated by the attempt to free Cartwright and other Presbyterians from prison. See Alexandra Walsham, s.v., “Hacket, William (d. 1591),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, accessed 20 June 2017, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/11840.

³⁷ Munro, Ian, The Figure of the Crowd in Early Modern London: The City and Its Double (Basingstoke, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 16, 23.

³⁸ See, for example, Plumb, John H., “The Growth of the Electorate in England from 1600 to 1715,” Past and Present 45, no. 1 (November 1969): 90–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ Arnold, The Third Citizen, 270n25.

⁴⁰ Kyle, Chris R., introduction to Parliament, Politics and Elections, 1604–1648, ed. Kyle, Chris R. (Cambridge, 2001), 1–12Google Scholar, at 8.

⁴¹ James, VI and I, “Basilicon Doron,” in King James VI and I, Political Writings, ed. Sommerville, Johann P. (Cambridge, 1994), 1–61Google Scholar, at 26, 27 (emphases added).

⁴² James VI and I, “Basilicon Doron,” 25, 26.

⁴³ James VI and I, 54.

⁴⁴ Bagshaw, Christopher, A sparing discouerie of our English Iesuits, and of Fa. Parsons proceedings […] (London, 1601)Google Scholar, A2r.

⁴⁵ D'Ewes, Simonds, A Compleat Journal […] (London, 1693), 653Google Scholar. See also Cornwallis, William, “Of Popularitie,” in Essayes (London, 1600–01)Google Scholar, R4r and R6v.

⁴⁶ See Andy Kesson and Emma Smith, “Introduction: Towards a Definition of Print Popularity,” in The Elizabethan Top Ten, ed. Kesson and Smith, 1–15, at 3. See also Preiss, Richard, Clowning and Authorship in Early Modern Theatre (Cambridge, 2014), 7, 32–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁷ Lake, “‘The Monarchical Republic,’” 145–47. See also Collinson, Patrick, “The Monarchical Republic of Queen Elizabeth I,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 69, no. 2 (1987), 394–424CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁸ Rollison, Commonwealth, 433.

⁴⁹ Peltonen, Markku, Classical Humanism and Republicanism in English Political Thought, 1570–1640 (Cambridge, 1995, reprinted 2004)Google Scholar, 2, 7.

⁵⁰ Goslicius, Laurentius Grimaldus, The Counsellor […] Newlie translated into English (London, 1598)Google Scholar, e.g., 62.

⁵¹ Goslicius, The Counsellor, 21, 38. The same reasoning can be found, for example, in Barnabe Barnes, Foure bookes of offices […] (London, 1606), 64–65.

⁵² In 1589 the French king Henry III had been murdered by the allegedly Jesuit-influenced Jacques Clément. Significantly, this was when the Catholic League had been accused of supporting the concept of a popular state. See Cuttica, Cesare, “Tyrannicide and Political Authority in the Long Sixteenth Century,” in Routledge Companion to Sixteenth-Century Philosophy, ed. Lagerlund, Henrik and Hill, Benjamin (New York and London, 2017), 265–92Google Scholar, at 269.

⁵³ William Watson, A decacordon of ten quodlibeticall questions concerning religion and state […] (1602), 333. Parsons promptly defended himself and the Jesuit Order from Watson's accusations of their disposition to “popularity.” (See, for example, Parsons, Robert, A manifestation of the great folly and bad spirit of certayne in England calling themselues secular priestes […] (Antwerp, 1602)Google Scholar, 67, 112.)

⁵⁴ Watson, A decacordon, 333.

⁵⁵ Watson, 28.

⁵⁶ Watson, 157–58.

⁵⁷ Watson, 169.

⁵⁸ Clark, William, A replie vnto a certaine libell, latelie set foorth by Fa: Parsons […] (London, 1603)Google Scholar, 76.

⁵⁹ Peltonen, Markku, Rhetoric, Politics and Popularity in Pre-Revolutionary England (Cambridge, 2013), 231Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Peltonen, Markku, “Political Argument,” in The Oxford History of Popular Print Culture, vol. 1, Cheap Print in Britain and Ireland to 1660, ed. Raymond, Joad (Oxford, 2011), 252–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 261.

⁶¹ See Sharpe, Kevin, Selling the Tudor Monarchy: Authority and Image in Sixteenth-Century England (New Haven, 2009)Google Scholar; Sharpe, Kevin, Image Wars: Promoting Kings and Commonwealths in England, 1603–1660 (New Haven, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶³ Tooker, Of the Fabrique of the Church, A4r.

⁶⁴ See above note 58.

⁶⁵ For other supporters of mixed government, see, for example, Peltonen, Classical Humanism, 93, 177–89.

⁶⁶ Cooper, Thomas, An admonition to the people of England […] (London, 1589), 92–93Google Scholar. Cooper also referred to the Peasants’ Revolt (1381), with its dangerous calls for general equality (159–60).

⁶⁷ Stoughton, William, An assertion for true and Christian church-policie […] (London, 1604), 359–64Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ It is important to reiterate that magistracies might be organized around a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, but the overall commonweal remained kingly.

⁶⁹ See John Walter, s.v., “Reynolds, John [alias Captain Pouch],” ODNB, accessed 21 June 2017, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/67261.

⁷⁰ Stirling, Brents, The Populace in Shakespeare (New York, 1965), 128Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Patterson, Annabel, Shakespeare and the Popular Voice (Oxford, 1989), 144–45Google Scholar.

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⁷³ James VI and I, “Speech to Parliament of 31 March 1607,” in Sommerville, King James VI and I, 159–78, at 174.

⁷⁴ Martin Fotherby, “The fourth Sermon, at the Court, Nouemb. 15. Anno 1607,” in Fotherby, Foure sermons […] (London, 1608), 87–108, at 97, 98.

⁷⁵ Fotherby, “The fourth Sermon,” 96.

⁷⁶ “Newfanglism” referred to people “with a liking for novelty”. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “newfanglist, (n.),” accessed 7 March 2017, http://accesdistant.bu.univ-paris8.fr:2174/view/Entry/126556?redirectedFrom=newfanglist.

⁷⁷ Wilkes, William, A second memento for magistrates […] (London, 1608), 18Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Wilkes, A second memento for magistrates, 22, 19.

⁷⁹ Wilkes, 29. “Passauantians” recalls the French verb passer avant (“to go forward”).

⁸⁰ Wilkes, 36, 37.

⁸¹ Wilkes, 54.

⁸² David Como, “Radical Puritanism, c. 1558–1660,” in The Cambridge Companion to Puritanism, ed. John Coffey and Paul C. H. Lim, 241–58, at 247.

⁸³ Smyth, John, Paralleles, censures, observations […] (Middelburg, 1609), 54–55Google Scholar.

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⁸⁵ See, for example, Zaret, David, “Religion and the Rise of Liberal-Democratic Ideology in 17th-Century England,” American Sociological Review 54, no. 2 (April 1989): 163–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 169.

⁸⁶ Robinson dismissed all speculation that he and his coreligionists conceived “any popular, or democraticall Church-government.” John Robinson, A Iust and Necessarie Apologie […] ([Amsterdam], 1625), 38. He also excluded women from all “matters truly publique and ecclesiasticall,” 39.

⁸⁷ Smyth, Paralleles, 55.

⁸⁸ Robinson, A iustification, 223–24.

⁸⁹ See also Robinson, John, Of Religious Communion […] ([Amsterdam?] 1614), 23Google Scholar. Richard Tuck has posited the critical distinction between popular sovereignty and popular administration; see Tuck, The Sleeping Sovereign. The Invention of Modern Democracy (Cambridge, 2016)Google Scholar. The passages illustrated above show that this distinction was first developed in ecclesiological theory, which is particularly important given that Hobbes is one of Tuck's “democratic” theorists, and a thinker who was deeply interested in congregational elections. I thank Jeffrey Collins for his suggestions on this point.

⁹⁰ See, for example, Maloy, Jason S., The Colonial American Origins of Modern Democratic Thought (Cambridge, 2008), 178CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹¹ Popular advice and consent were often viewed as indispensable tools to regulate decisions and actions taken by the eldership and the ministry; they were even invoked. Yet they were no endorsement of a fully democratic government at the head of which stood the demos.

⁹² Carier, Benjamin, A treatise […] (London, 1614), 19Google Scholar. “Belgian” means Dutch, whereas the Geuses are the “Gueux” or “Geuzen” (in English, “Beggars”). They were Calvinists who in the second half of the sixteenth century had opposed Spanish rule in the Netherlands and had founded a republic in the north of the country. The opposite view of the Dutch was to be put forward by the well-known anti-popish polemicist Thomas Scott (1580?–1626), who praised their commonwealth government (Scott, Thomas, The Belgicke Pigsmire […] (London, 1622), 89–91Google Scholar).

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⁹⁵ James VI and I, “A Speach in the Starre-Chamber,” 222 (emphasis added).

⁹⁶ The same opinion had been expounded six years earlier by Lord Keeper Ellesmere (Egerton, Thomas, “Speciall Obseruacions Touching all the Sessions of the Last Parlement Anno 7 Regis and etc.” (1611), in Law and Politics in Jacobean England. The Tracts of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, ed. Knafla, Louis A. (Cambridge, 1977), xi, 254–62Google Scholar, at 254).

⁹⁷ Even when deploring past and present republics, the principal focus of much Stuart literature was on unveiling their being popular states.

⁹⁸ Zaret, David, Origins of Democratic Culture: Printing, Petitions, and the Public Sphere in Early-Modern England (Princeton, 2000), 79Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ See, for example, James VI and I, My Lords and Gent: all (Report of James I's speech accepting subsidies but refusing parliamentary supervision of foreign policy), ca. 1621, MS X.d.150, fol. 1v, Folger Shakespeare Library.

¹⁰⁰ Andrew Thrush, “The Personal Rule of James I, 1611–1620,” in Cogswell, Cust and Lake, Politics, Religion and Popularity, 84–102, at 84.

¹⁰¹ Cited in Sharpe, Kevin, “Introduction: Parliamentary History, 1603–1629: In or Out of Perspective?,” in Faction and Parliament: Essays on Early Stuart History, ed. Sharpe, Kevin (Oxford, 1978), 1–42Google Scholar, at 13.

¹⁰² Sharpe, “Introduction,” 27–28, 39.

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¹²² See McRae, Andrew, Literature, Satire and the Early Stuart State (Cambridge, 2004), 30CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Bellany, Alastair, “Libels in Action: Ritual, Subversion and the English Literary Underground, 1603–42,” in The Politics of the Excluded, c. 1500–1850, ed. Harris, Tim (Basingstoke, 2001), 99–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 111.

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¹²⁸ Cited in Sharpe, Kevin, Remapping Early Modern England: The Culture of Seventeenth-Century Politics (Cambridge, 2000), 143Google Scholar.

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¹⁴⁵ Hobbes, De corpore politico, 75.

¹⁴⁶ Hobbes, 172, 173.

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¹⁵⁷ Mendle, Michael, Dangerous Positions: Mixed Government, the Estates of the Realm, and the Making of the “Answer to the xix propositions” (Tuscaloosa, 1985), 169–70Google Scholar, 182.

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¹⁶¹ John Guy, “The Elizabethan Establishment and the Ecclesiastical Polity,” in Guy, The Reign, 126–49, at 148–49.

¹⁶² This was to be so in conjunction with notions of representative democracy and popular accountability formulated by such pamphleteers as John Streater.

¹⁶³ All of this explains why democracy remained a dirty word well into the nineteenth century. See, for example, Saunders, Robert, “Democracy,” in Languages of Politics in Nineteenth-Century Britain, ed. Craig, David and Thompson, James (Basingstoke, 2013), 142–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 142–44.