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⁹ The foundational scholarship here is Ackerknecht, Erwin, “Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 22 (September–October, 1948): 562–93.Google Scholar For a survey of the more nuanced relationship between liberalism and antiquarantine positions, see Baldwin, Peter, Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830–1930 (New York, 2005)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Nead, Victorian Babylon; Allen, Michelle, Cleansing the City (Athens, GA, 2008)Google Scholar.

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¹² Defoe, Daniel, A Journal of the Plague Year (New York, 1960), 51Google Scholar; The Diary of Samuel Pepys (1825; repr., Berkeley, CA, 1970–83). See, even earlier, Dekker's, Thomas aptly titled The Seuen Deadly Sinnes of London, drawn in seuen seuerall Coaches, Through the seuen seuerall Gates of the Citie; Bringing the Plague with them (London, 1606)Google Scholar.

¹³ Quoted in Moore, Henry Charles, Omnibuses and Cabs: Their Origin and History (London, 1902), 203.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Quoted in May, Trevor, Gondolas and Growlers (Phoenix Mill, UK, 1995), 9.Google Scholar See also Schlesinger, Max, Saunterings In and About London (London, 1853), 158Google Scholar; “Our Cabs,” The Centaur, 15 January 1881, 5.

¹⁵ Thrupp, G. A., The History of Coaches (London, 1877), 118.Google Scholar

¹⁶ May, Gondolas and Growlers, 36–47, 63–75.

¹⁷ Quoted in Moore, Omnibuses and Cabs, 200.

¹⁸ Trollope, Anthony, The Way We Live Now (London, 1875), 3Google Scholar; Dickens, Charles, Our Mutual Friend (1864–65; repr., New York, 1967), 257.Google Scholar See also Tristan, Flora, London Journal, 1840 (Charlestown, MA, 1980), 151Google Scholar; John Armstrong, “From Shillibeer to Buchanan: Transport and the Urban Environment,” in Daunton, Cambridge Urban History of Britain, 229–31.

¹⁹ Cunningham, Peter, London in 1856 (London, 1856), xxxi–xxxiiGoogle Scholar; Inwood, Stephen, City of Cities (London, 2005), 225.Google Scholar

²⁰ Ritchie, J. Ewing, About London (London, 1860), 191–92.Google Scholar The saucy reputation of cabmen appears to have been established very early. Jenner, Mark, “Circulation and Disorder: London Streets and Hackney Coaches, c. 1640–1740,” in The Streets of London, ed. Hitchcock, Tim and Shore, Heather (Chicago, 2003), 40–53.Google Scholar

²¹ Dickens, Charles, “The Last Cab Driver, and the First Omnibus Cad,” in Sketches by Boz (1836; repr., Columbus, OH, 1994), 170–81Google Scholar; [John Hollingshead], “Cab!” All the Year Round, 25 February 1860, 414–16; Greenwood, James, “With a Night Cabman,” in The Wilds of London (London, 1874), 107–16Google Scholar; Mayhew, Henry, London Labour and the London Poor (New York, 1985), 363–68.Google Scholar

²² Letter from “M.D.,” The Times, 30 January 1863, 8.

²³ Dickens, “Omnibuses,” in Sketches by Boz, 166–70. On the omnibus, see Lee, Charles E., The Horse Bus as a Vehicle (London, 1974)Google Scholar.

²⁴ Casteras, Susan P., “Seeing the Unseen: Pictorial Problematics and Victorian Images of Class, Poverty, and Urban Life,” in Victorian Literature and the Victorian Visual Imagination, ed. Christ, Carol T. and Jordan, John O. (Berkeley, CA, 1995), 264–87.Google Scholar For all his praise of the omnibus's kaleidoscopic potential, Dickens observed that inevitably “conversation is now entirely dropped; each person gazes vacantly through the window in front of him, and everybody thinks that his opposite neighbor is staring at him” (“Omnibuses,” 141).

²⁵ Sala, George, Twice Round the Clock (London, 1859), 219–22.Google Scholar

²⁶ Rev. J. Kirkman, Hampstead and Highgate Express, 13 January 1877, 3. This last piece of advice is helpful for demonstrating the variously conflicting theories of disease transmission that were recruited to sustain the fear of contaminated vehicles. Semantically muddled debates between “contagionists” and “miasmists” that rankled the medical profession in the first half of the century were largely muted by the 1860s and had finally conjoined with the popular impression of epidemics’ vague multicausality. Either theory could be called upon (and, confusedly, often simultaneously) to support the indiscriminate danger of public conveyances. A cab that received the noxious discharges of a fever patient (or even a very filthy person) could, according to the miasmatic theory of “infection,” incubate the decomposition of animal matter into a concentrated cloud of disease-breeding foulness and stink—in the same way that close and unventilated apartments constituted poison chambers germinating fevers of various kinds in their inmates. “Contagion” properly understood would occur only when specific materies morbi passed from the sick to the healthy and resulted in the same species of illness (as with smallpox, practically all agreed). In practice, physicians and the public alike used both terms interchangeably—and, hence, the interesting notion here that tobacco smoke would counteract the atmosphere of the smallpox-impregnated traveling compartment. Moreover—and perhaps equally important in the minds of many—either method of propagating disease was similarly associated with moral contamination, whether a traveler emerged from a hired vehicle carrying the seeds of a previous occupant's disease or the taint of their foul smell. This last point was expressed in “London Cabs,” The Times, 10 December 1859, 4.

²⁷ Turvey, Ralph, “Street Mud, Dust and Noise,” London Journal 21, no. 2 (December 1996), 131–48Google Scholar; Winter, James, London's Teeming Streets, 1830–1914 (New York, 1993), 34–49.Google Scholar

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³⁰ “On the Present Mode of Conveying Small-Pox and Fever Patients to the Hospitals in Public Vehicles,” Medical Times and Gazette, 31 July 1852, 112–13; Grainger, R. D., Report to General Board of Health on the Present Mode of Conveying Small-Pox and Fever Patients to the Hospitals in Public Vehicles (London, 1852)Google Scholar.

³¹ “Fevers upon Wheels,” Punch, 19 January 1861, 31; The Fifty-Ninth Report of the London Fever Hospital, 1860 (London, 1861), 12–13.Google Scholar

³² Horace Jeaffreson, “London Fevers and London Cabs,” The Times, 5 March 1866, 10.

³³ “Street Cabs,” The Times, 13 December 1859, 5.

³⁴ “Small-Pox in the Metropolis,” Lancet, 18 April 1863, 448. The story is repeated in British Medical Journal, 20 May 1865, 516 (hereafter cited as BMJ); and “Hospital Carriages,” The Times, 16 May 1865, 6.

³⁵ Ritchie, About London, 189–90. See also letter from “H. B. P.,” The Times, 19 January 1869, 9; Medical Times and Gazette, 31 July 1852, 113.

³⁶ “A Sufferer from the Evil Complained of,” Lancet, 5 November 1864, 534; BMJ, 20 November 1858, 972.

³⁷ Samuel Stretton, “Ambulance Conveyances in London,” BMJ, 30 July 1881, 187.

³⁸ W. H. Cufaude, The Times, 20 November 1863, 10; Hubert A. Holden, The Times, 23 November, 1863, 10; The Times, 3 December 1868, 5; 4 December 1868, 7; 5 December 1868, 5; 23 December 1871, 6; 5 January 1872, 9; Lancet, 2 January 1875, 29. A lengthy exchange in 1868 had many writers wondering how they were to get sick relatives home except by rail. “How Scarlet Fever Spreads,” The Times, 14 April 1868, 5; 16 April 1868, 10; 17 April 1868, 10; 18 April 1868, 7; 20 April 1868, 5.

³⁹ “Contagion on the Rail,” Punch, 6 August 1864, 53; Second Report of the Royal Sanitary Commission, Vol. III Minutes of Evidence (London, 1871)Google Scholar, questions 9390–93.

⁴⁰ “Smallpox by Railway,” The Times, 2 July 1863, 14; “Smallpox by Train,” The Times, 6 July 1871, 11. See also The Times, 10 July 1871, 7; 5 January 1872, 9; “One Way of Getting Small-Pox and Fever,” Lancet, 10 March 1866, 266–67. For similar surprises on omnibuses: “Small-Pox in an Omnibus,” Medical Times and Gazette, 28 January 1871, 105.

⁴¹ The Echo, 7 February 1871, 2.

⁴² Daily Telegraph, 28 January 1871, 5. A brougham was a light, four-wheeled carriage for private use, not public hire.

⁴³ “On the Present Mode of Conveying Small-Pox and Fever Patients to the Hospitals in Public Vehicles,” Medical Times and Gazette, 31 July 1852, 113.

⁴⁴ Reprinted in “Small-Pox in Cabs,” BMJ, 19 January 1867, 71. See also “Conveyance of Fever Patients in Public Vehicles,” Medical Times and Gazette, 25 June 1853, 651.

⁴⁵ Pall Mall Gazette, 27 February 1877, 4 (reprinted in BMJ, 10 March 1877, 313).

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⁴⁹ Medical Times and Gazette, 21 March 1863, 299; BMJ, 14 February 1863, 171; and “Diseases Prevention Act,” BMJ, 21 March 1863, 301.

⁵⁰ 29 & 30 Vict cap 90. Penalties and provisions dealing with public exposure were largely recodified in the 1875 Public Health Act, which also again encouraged local sanitary authorities to provide infectious ambulances. The 1890 Infectious Disease Prevention Act prohibited the use of cabs for transporting corpses of persons dying from infectious diseases. The 1891 Public Health (London) Act raised the maximum penalty for infectious persons entering public vehicles to £10.

⁵¹ Ayers, Gwendoline M., England's First State Hospitals and the Metropolitan Asylums Board, 1867–1930 (Berkeley, CA, 1971)Google Scholar; Kerr, Matthew Newsom, “Fevered Metropolis: Epidemic Disease and Isolation in Victorian London” (PhD thesis, University of Southern California, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁵² “Infectious Diseases and Public Conveyances,” BMJ, 4 April 1863, 350.

⁵³ The hospitals were in Hampstead, Homerton, Stockwell, Fulham, and Deptford. An 1881 survey found that nearly 90 percent of MAB patients had never previously received parish relief and had technically become pauperized only to secure isolation. Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire respecting Small-Pox and Fever Hospitals (RCSFH), Cmd. 3314 (London, 1882), 65.

⁵⁴ “Small-Pox in London,” The Times, 16 October 1876, 7.

⁵⁵ Pall Mall Gazette, 16 January 1871, 5; The Echo, 7 February 1871, 2.

⁵⁶ North Londoner, 17 June 1871, 8; The Times, 7 June 1871, 11; 29 September 1871, 9; 6 February 1871, 11.

⁵⁷ Daily Telegraph, 20 January 1871, 5.

⁵⁸ Hampstead and Highgate Express 11 May 1872, 18 May 1872; The Times, 24 April 1871, 11; 3 May 1871, 11.

⁵⁹ “Infected Patients in Public Conveyances,” BMJ, 5 September 1874, 310.

⁶⁰ “A Fever Patient in a Public Conveyance,” Sanitary Record, 20 May, 1876, 353.

⁶¹ “Conveying Infectious Patient,” Sanitary Record, 5 February 1876, 96; “Conveying a Fever Patient in a Hansom Cab,” Sanitary Record, 19 February 1876, 134.

⁶² “Small-Pox and Cabs,” The Times, 27 December 1870, 9; 7 January 1871, 11; “Contagion and Conveyance,” The Times, 20 January 1871, 5; “Small-Pox and Red Tape,” Lancet, 13 April 1872, 515–16; 7 October 1871, 514.

⁶³ The Times, 30 August 1871, 9; see also 14 May 1878, 4.

⁶⁴ Other prosecutions for “exposure”: North Londoner, 2 July 1870, 7; The Times, 28 December 1870, 4; 7 January 1871, 11; 16 January 1871, 11; 20 January 1871, 5; 6 February 1871, 11; 2 March 1871, 11; 29 August 1872, 9; 12 September 1883, 4; “The Protection of the Public from Contagious Diseases,” Lancet, 30 January 1875, 174.

⁶⁵ Daily Telegraph, 28 January 1871, 5.

⁶⁶ Hart, Harold, “The Conveyance of Patients to and from Hospital, 1720–1850,” Medical History 22, no. 4 (October 1978): 397–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶⁸ At the very least, the supposition made by Haller that civilian ambulances originated chiefly from organized “social compassion” is clearly inadequate. Haller, John S., “The Beginnings of Urban Ambulance Service in the United States and England,” Journal of Emergency Medicine 8, no. 6 (November–December 1990): 755.Google Scholar See also Hutchinson, John F., “Civilian Ambulances and Lifesaving Societies: The European Experience, 1870–1914,” in Accidents in History, ed. Cooter, Roger and Luckin, Bill (Amsterdam, 1997), 158–78.Google Scholar

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⁷⁰ Return of Number of Carriages for Conveyance of Sick and Diseased Persons provided within Metropolitan Police District and City of London (House of Commons, 4 June 1863).

⁷¹ Edward Ballard, “Street Cabs and Infectious Diseases,” The Times, 2 February 1863, 6.

⁷² “Hospital Carriages,” The Times, 24 September 1864, 10; “Typhus and Smallpox,” The Times, 5 January 1866, 8; The Times, 5 March 1866, 10; Horace Jeaffreson, “Hospital Carriages,” The Times, 29 January 1867, 8; “Propagation of Disease by Public Vehicles,” The Times, 21 January 1869, 7; “Propagation of Disease by Public Vehicles,” BMJ, 30 January 1869, 103–4; “Ambulances,” Lancet, 23 January 1875, 138.

⁷³ “Hospital Carriages for Fever Patients,” Illustrated London News, 23 February 1867, 190; “Hospital Carriages,” BMJ, 10 March 1866, 270.

⁷⁴ “Hospital Carriages,” BMJ, 19 January 1867, 61; “One Way of Getting Small-Pox and Fever,” Lancet, 10 March 1866, 266–67.

⁷⁵ “Small-Pox and Fever Carriages,” BMJ, 28 January 1871, 97.

⁷⁶ “The Use of Cabs in Fever Cases,” The Times, 25 January 1869, 12; BMJ, 21 January 1871, 73.

⁷⁷ Daily Telegraph, 13 February 1871, 5; “Fever and Smallpox,” The Times, 18 October 1881, 10.

⁷⁸ “Diseases Prevention Act,” BMJ, 21 March 1863, 301; “Ambulances,” Lancet, 23 January 1875, 138.

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⁸¹ RCSFH, 52. See also Pall Mall Gazette, 3 February 1871, 10; North Londoner, 12 August 1871, 7.

⁸² See MAB Minutes, 19 February 1881, 14:863–64; 26 November 1881, 15:749; 10 December 1881, 15:758–59; “Parish Ambulances,” The Times, 29 November 1881, 6; 13 December 1881, 10.

⁸³ “Opening of the Stockwell Small-Pox Hospital,” South London Press, 4 February 1871, 6; 11 February 1871, 7; The Echo, 10 February 1871, 4.

⁸⁴ “Conveyance of Smallpox Patients,” The Times, 13 February 1871, 12; 6 February 1871, 6; “The Small-Pox Hospital Case,” Medical Press and Circular, 16 March 1881, 229.

⁸⁵ Hackney Guardian, 18 February 1871, 3. This was also the response of the St. Marylebone Guardians. The Times, 6 February 1871, 6.

⁸⁶ N. S. Steinberg, Hampstead and Highgate Express, 5 January 1884, 3.

⁸⁷ South London Press, 18 February 1871, 6; “Parish Ambulance,” Hackney Guardian, 18 February 1871, 3.

⁸⁸ B. Meredyth Kitson, The Times, 30 May 1884, 7 (reprinted in Hackney and Kingsland Gazette, 2 June 1884, 3).

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¹⁰³ Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 3 (1881–82): 57–58.

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¹⁰⁸ “How the Asylums Board Battles against Small-Pox,” London Argus, 13 September 1901, 1. See also Nursing Record and Hospital World, 7 December 1901, 462.

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