Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T02:10:19.820Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Guilds, Immigration, and Immigrant Economic Organization: Alien Goldsmiths in London, 1480–1540

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 May 2021

Charlotte Berry Open the ORCID record for Charlotte Berry [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Immigration was essential to trades reliant on fashion and high skill in London around the turn of the sixteenth century. This article explores the patterns of migration to the city by continental goldsmiths between 1480 and 1540 and the structure of the communities they formed. It argues that attitudes to migration within the London Goldsmiths’ Company, which governed the trade, were complex and shifted in response to evolving national legislation. A social network analysis of the relationships between alien masters and servants indicates how the alien community changed and adapted. Taking a view across the traditional late medieval and early modern period boundary allows for a deeper understanding of how attitudes to migration and to migrant communities changed as London's population began to grow.

Type
Original Manuscript
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 60 , Issue 3 , July 2021 , pp. 534 - 562
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the North American Conference on British Studies

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Ordinances approved by the king's council, 1514, Second Book of Ordinances, fols. 8v–9, Goldsmiths’ Company Library, London (hereafter GC). With a few exceptions, I have modernized the spelling in all quotations from this and other early sources.

2 Ormrod, William Mark, Lambert, Bart, and Mackman, Jonathan, Immigrant England, 1300–1550 (Manchester, 2019), 8–9Google Scholar.

3 Smith, Adam, The Wealth of Nations: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. Wight, Jonathan B. (Petersfield, 2007), 81Google Scholar; Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich, The German Ideology: Part One with Selections from Parts Two and Three and Supplementary Texts, ed. Arthur, C. J. (New York, 1970), 70–75Google Scholar.

4 Thrupp, Sylvia L., “Medieval Gilds Reconsidered,” Journal of Economic History 2, no. 2 (1942): 164–73, at 173CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 See Epstein, S. R. and Prak, Maarten, eds. Guilds, Innovation and the European Economy, 1400–1800 (Cambridge, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The revisionist position is set out in the editors’ introduction (S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, “Guilds, Innovation and the European Economy, 1400–1800,” 1–24) and other contributions to the volume, particularly Ulrich Pfister, “Craft Guilds, the Theory of the Firm, and Early Modern Proto-industry,” 25–51, and Reinhold Reith, “Circulation of Skilled Labour in Late Medieval and Early Modern Central Europe,” 114–42. See also, in an English context, Rosser, Gervase, “Crafts, Guilds and the Negotiation of Work in the Medieval Town,” Past and Present, no. 154 (1997): 3–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Epstein, S. R., “Craft Guilds, Apprenticeship, and Technological Change in Preindustrial Europe,” Journal of Economic History 58, no. 3 (1998): 684–713CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Epstein, “Craft Guilds, Apprenticeship,” 690–93.

8 Rosser, Gervase, The Art of Solidarity in the Middle Ages: Guilds in England, 1250–1550 (Oxford, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Karel Davids and Bert De Munck, “Innovation and Creativity in Late Medieval and Early Modern European Cities: An Introduction,” in Innovation and Creativity in Late Medieval and Early Modern European Cities, ed. Karel Davids and Bert De Munck (Farnham, 2014), 1–34, at 2–14.

10 Barron, Caroline M., London in the Later Middle Ages: Government and People, 1200–1500 (Oxford, 2004), 229–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Rappaport, Steve, Worlds within Worlds: Structures of Life in Sixteenth-Century London (Cambridge, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Ogilvie, Sheilagh, “Guilds, Efficiency, and Social Capital: Evidence from German Proto-industry,” Economic History Review 57, no. 2 (2004): 286–333CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ogilvie, Sheilagh, “The Economics of Guilds,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 28, no. 4 (2014): 169–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Ogilvie, Sheilagh, “Rehabilitating the Guilds: A Reply,” Economic History Review 61, no. 1 (2008): 175–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Epstein, S. R., “Craft Guilds in the Pre-modern Economy: A Discussion,” Economic History Review 61, no. 1 (2008): 155–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Prak, Maarten, Citizens without Nations: Urban Citizenship in Europe and the World, c. 1000–1789 (Cambridge, 2018), 93–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Prak, Citizens without Nations, 97–101.

16 Prak, 100.

17 De Munck, Bert and Winter, Anne, “Regulating Migration in Early Modern Cities: An Introduction,” in Gated Communities? Regulating Migration in Early Modern Cities, ed. De Munck, Bert and Winter, Anne (London, 2012), 1–25, at 1–2Google Scholar.

18 Reith, “Circulation of Skilled Labour.”

19 Reininghaus, Wilfried, “Die Migration der Handwerksgesellen in der Zeit der Entstehung ihrer Gilden (14./15. Jahrhundert),” VSWG: Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 68, no. 1 (1981): 1–21Google Scholar; Knut Schulz, “Handwerkerwanderungen und Neuburger im Spätmittelalter,” in Neuburger im späten Mittelalter: Migration und Austausch in der Städtelandschaft des alten Reiches (1250–1550), ed. Rainer Christoph Schwinges (Berlin, 2002), 371–408; Epstein, “Craft Guilds, Apprenticeship,” 703.

20 S. R. Epstein, “Labour Mobility, Journeymen Organisations and Markets in Skilled Labour in Europe, 14th–18th Centuries,” in Le Technician dans la Cité en Europe Occidentale, 1250–1650, ed. Mathieu Arnoux and Pierre Monnet (Rome, 2004), 251–69, at 254–55.

21 Epstein, “Labour Mobility,” 252–53.

22 Epstein, 256–58.

23 Barron, London in the Later Middle Ages, 211–14.

24 Schulz, “Handwerkerwanderungen,” 375.

25 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 213–14.

26 Bolton, James L., “The Alien Population of London in the Fifteenth Century: A Reappraisal,” in The Alien Communities of London in the Fifteenth Century: The Subsidy Rolls of 1440 and 1483–4, ed. Bolton, James L. (Stamford, 1998), 1–40Google Scholar, at 8–9; Keene, Derek, “Metropolitan Values: Migration, Mobility and Cultural Norms, 1300–1700,” in The Development of Standard English, 1300–1800, ed. Wright, Laura (Cambridge, 2000), 93–114, at 109Google Scholar.

27 Publications arising from the project include Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England; Lutkin, Jessica, “Settled or Fleeting? London's Medieval Immigrant Community Revisited,” in Medieval Merchants and Money: Essays in Honour of James L. Bolton, ed. Allen, Martin and Davies, Matthew (London, 2016), 137–56Google Scholar; Lambert, Bart and Pajic, Milan, “Immigration and the Common Profit: Native Cloth Workers, Flemish Exiles, and Royal Policy in Fourteenth-Century London,” Journal of British Studies 55, no. 4 (2016): 633–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 69, 127–51.

29 Esser, Raingard, “‘They Obey All Magistrates and All Good Lawes . . . and We Thinke Our Cittie Happie to Enjoye Them’: Migrants and Urban Stability in Early Modern English Towns,” Urban History 34, no. 1 (2007): 64–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Catherine Wright, “The Dutch in London: Connections and Identities, c. 1660–c.1720” (PhD diss., University of London, 2015).

30 Bolton, “Alien Population of London,” 26–28; Bennett, Judith M., “Women (and Men) on the Move: Scots in the English North c. 1440,” Journal of British Studies 57, no. 1 (2018): 21–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 Selwood, Jacob, Diversity and Difference in Early Modern London (London, 2016), 32–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Yungblut, Laura Hunt, Strangers Settled Here amongst Us: Policies, Perceptions and the Presence of Aliens in Elizabethan England (London, 1996), 1–2Google Scholar.

33 Lambert and Pajic, “Immigration and the Common Profit.”

34 For example, see Luu, Liên Bich, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 1500–1700: A Study in Technological Transfer (Aldershot, 2005)Google Scholar; Selwood, Diversity and Difference.

35 Ian W. Archer, “Responses to Alien Immigrants in London, c. 1400–1650,” in Le Migrazioni in Europa, secc. XIII–XVIII: Atti della Venticinquesima Settimana di Studi, 3–8 maggio 1993, ed. Simonetta Cavaciocchi (Florence, 1994), 755–74, at 763–69.

36 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 250.

37 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, 247–48.

38 Yungblut, Strangers Settled Here, 37.

39 Rappaport, Worlds within Worlds, 61–64.

40 McIntosh, Marjorie Keniston, Poor Relief in England, 1350–1600 (Cambridge, 2012), 43–45Google Scholar.

41 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 195–96.

42 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, 34–37, 60–61; Rappaport, Worlds within Worlds, 42–47.

43 The overreliance on Evil May Day as an example is discussed in Selwood, Diversity and Difference, 54–56.

44 McSheffrey, Shannon, “Stranger Artisans and the London Sanctuary of St. Martin Le Grand in the Reign of Henry VIII,” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 43, no. 3 (2013): 545–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McSheffrey, Shannon, Seeking Sanctuary: Crime, Mercy, and Politics in English Courts, 1400–1550 (Oxford, 2017), 58–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 112–39.

45 Shannon McSheffrey, “Gendering Popular Politics: Medieval Riot, State Formation, and the Absence of Women,” Histories of the Present, History Workshop Online, 16 October 2019, http://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/gendering-popular-politics-medieval-riot-state-formation-and-the-absence-of-women/.

46 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 141–43.

47 Davies, Matthew, “Aliens, Crafts and Guilds in Late Medieval London,” in Medieval Londoners: Essays to Mark the Eightieth Birthday of Caroline M. Barron, ed. New, Elizabeth A. and Steer, Christian (London, 2019), 119–48Google Scholar.

48 Davies, “Aliens, Crafts and Guilds,” 124–26, 137.

49 Archer, “Responses to Alien Immigrants,” 767–69.

50 Jan De Meester, “Migrant Workers and Illicit Labour: Regulating the Immigration of Building Workers in Sixteenth-Century Antwerp,” in Winter and Munck, Gated Communities?, 25–43; Prak, Citizens without Nations, 90–91.

51 Selwood, Diversity and Difference, chap. 2; Archer, “Responses to Alien Immigrants,” 767–68.

52 Maryfield, Pamela, “Love as Brethren”: A Quincentennial History of the Coopers’ Company (London, 2000), 16–19Google Scholar.

53 Archer, Ian W., The History of the Haberdashers’ Company (Chichester, 1991), 60–61Google Scholar.

54 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 234–36.

55 Hugh Tait, “London Huguenot Silver,” in Huguenots in Britain and Their French Background, 1550–1800, ed. Irene Scouloudi (Totowa, 1987), 90–92, at 91.

56 Tait, “London Huguenot Silver,” 90–91.

57 Davies, “Aliens, Crafts and Guilds,” 138–47; Archer, “Responses to Alien Immigrants,” 169.

58 Reddaway, T. F. and Walker, Lorna E. M., The Early History of the Goldsmiths’ Company, 1327–1509 (London, 1975), 128Google Scholar.

59 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 224–25, 232–38.

60 Caroline M. Barron, “London 1300–1540,” in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. 1, 600–1540, ed. David Michael Palliser (Cambridge, 2000), 395–440, at 395, 412–28, 438–40. For an overview of the geographic spread of Renaissance art in Europe, see Carol M. Richardson, introduction to Locating Renaissance Art, vol. 2 of Renaissance Art Reconsidered, ed. Carol M. Richardson (London, 2007), 15–24.

61 See the map of European and Mediterranean trade routes in Richardson, introduction, Locating Renaissance Art, 12–13.

62 Sicca, Cinzia M., “Consumption and Trade of Art between Italy and England in the First Half of the Sixteenth Century: The London House of the Bardi and Cavalcanti Company,” Renaissance Studies 16, no. 2 (2002): 163–201CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Thurley, Simon, The Royal Palaces of Tudor England: Architecture and Court Life, 1460–1547 (New Haven, 1993), 85–111Google Scholar; Philippa Glanville, “Cardinal Wolsey and the Goldsmiths,” in Cardinal Wolsey: Church, State and Art, ed. Steven J. Gunn and P. G. Lindley (Cambridge, 1991), 131–48, at 148. On the import of new designs and techniques in stained glass and architecture, see Mary Bryan H. Curd, Flemish and Dutch Artists in Early Modern England: Collaboration and Competition, 1460–1680 (Farnham, 2010).

63 Carl Hernmarck, The Art of the European Silversmith, 1430–1830, vol. 1, Text (London, 1977), 23–24, 31.

64 Glanville, Philippa, Silver in Tudor and Early Stuart England: A Social History and Catalogue of the National Collection, 1480–1660 (London, 1990), 147–51Google Scholar.

65 Davids and De Munck, “Innovation and Creativity,” 22–23; Philippa Glanville, Silver in England (New York, 1987), 223–26.

66 Glanville, “Cardinal Wolsey and the Goldsmiths,” 134–37.

67 Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics, trans. J. A. K. Thomson, rev. Hugh Tredennick (London, 2004), 82–85; Campbell, Thomas P., Henry VIII and the Art of Majesty: Tapestries at the Tudor Court (New Haven, 2007), 52–53, 68Google Scholar.

68 On the history of the company in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, see Reddaway and Walker, Early History of the Goldsmiths.

69 Wardens’ Accounts and Court Minutes (hereafter WACM), Bk. D, pp. 306–8, GC.

70 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 242–43.

71 Reddaway and Walker, Early History of the Goldsmiths, 126–31.

72 WACM, Bk. B, pp. 277, 302–5, 311, GC.

73 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 235.

74 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, pp. 393–96, GC.

75 WACM, Bk. C, p. 131, GC.

76 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 235; David M. Mitchell, Silversmiths in Elizabethan and Stuart London: Their Lives and Their Marks (Woodbridge, 2017), 52.

77 Ordinances approved by the king's council, 1514, Second Book of Ordinances, fol. 9v, GC.

78 WACM, Bk. D, p. 131, GC.

79 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, p. 310, GC.

80 For example, see the elections of 1510, 1518, and 1528. WACM, Bk. C, pp. 31, 43, GC; WACM Bk. D, p. 250, GC.

81 WACM, Bk. F, p. 67, GC.

82 Esser, “They Obey All Magistrates.”

83 Schulz, “Handwerkerwanderungen,” 448–62.

84 Ordinances approved by the king's council, 1514, Second Book of Ordinances, fol. 9, GC.

85 For a recent reflection on the importance of and means of developing trust over long distances in the Middle Ages, see Ian Forrest and Anne Haour, “Trust in Long-Distance Relationships, 1000–1600 CE,” in “The Global Middle Ages,” ed. Catherine Holmes and Naomi Standen, supplement, Past and Present 238, no. S13 (2018): 190–213.

86 Ordinances approved by the king's council, 1514, Second Book of Ordinances, fol. 9, GC.

87 See Ordinance C.21, “Appendix I: The Book of Ordinances,” in Reddaway and Walker, Early History of the Goldsmiths, 234.

88 WACM, Bk. C, pp. 168–69, GC.

89 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 224–25.

90 Glanville, Silver in England, 123–30.

91 Mitchell, Silversmiths in Elizabethan and Stuart London, 24–25.

92 Excluded are a small number of migrants from Scotland (two), Spain (three), Portugal (one), and Denmark (one) because no settlement of origin was recorded for them; also excluded are four of the eleven from Ireland and ten of the forty-two described as “Frenchman.”

93 Bolton, “The Alien Population of London,” 29.

94 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 231; Clark, Peter, European Cities and Towns, 400–2000 (Oxford, 2009), 111Google Scholar.

95 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 139–41; Lambert and Pajic, “Immigration and the Common Profit,” 637–39.

96 WACM, Bk. C, pp. 200, 203, GC.

97 WACM, Bk. C, p. 169, GC.

98 Christopher Edgar Challis, The Tudor Coinage (Manchester, 1978), 36.

99 WACM, Bk. D, p. 73, GC.

100 WACM, Bk. C, pp. 130, 180, GC

101 Pierres Boullengier of Paris brought a testimonial in 1516, “made by Jaques de Lannay and Nicholas de Tamenay notoryes to the Frensh Kyng wretyn in the Castell of Parice.” WACM, Bk. C, p. 202, GC. Guynyot Corderot of Dijon brought a testimonial under the King of France's seal signed by Peter Clemens, notary public, in 1515. WACM, Bk. C, p. 188, GC.

102 McSheffrey, Seeking Sanctuary, 21–23.

103 Peter Clark and Denis Menjot, introduction to Subaltern City? Alternative and Peripheral Spaces in the Pre-modern Period (13th to 18th Centuries), ed. Peter Clark and Denis Menjot (Turnhout, 2019), 9–22; Alsayyad, Nezar and Roy, Ananya, “Medieval Modernity: On Citizenship and Urbanism in a Global Era,” Space and Polity 10, no. 1 (2006): 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 On the development of liberties and their increasing use in the later fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, see McSheffrey, Seeking Sanctuary.

105 WACM, Bk. E, pp. 42, 95, 105, 112, GC.

106 McSheffrey, Seeking Sanctuary, 117–19.

107 McSheffrey, 126–29; McSheffrey, “Stranger Artisans,” 556–61.

108 McSheffrey, Seeking Sanctuary, 136–39; Statutes of the Realm, 21 Hen. 8, c. 16.

109 Second Book of Ordinances, fols. 23–28v, GC; Reddaway and Walker, Early History of the Goldsmiths, 167, 194–95.

110 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, p. 216, GC.

111 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, pp. 437, 506, GC.

112 McSheffrey, Seeking Sanctuary, 129.

113 St. Martin le Grand Accounts, MS 13318, Westminster Abbey Muniments. The six identifiable goldsmiths (either through naming of their occupation in the rental or through corroboration with Goldsmiths’ Company records) were Albert Gonerson, Pierre Boullangier, Philip Violett, Miles Howbright (or Hubberd), Roger Farling, and Thomas Beme.

114 WACM, Book A, vol. 2, p. 506, GC.

115 Statutes of the Realm, 14 Hen. 8, c. 2.

116 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 24–29.

117 Statutes of the Realm, 21 Hen. 8, c. 16.

118 WACM, Bk. D, p. 280, GC.

119 See WACM, Bk. D, pp. 273–89, 302–31, GC.

120 “Repertory of the Court of Aldermen no. 8, 1528–33,” COL/CA/01/01/008, fol. 59, London Metropolitan Archives.

121 WACM, Bk. D, pp. 276–77, GC.

122 Up until the election of 1535, the “choosers” of the assistants who elected the wardens are described as being the strangers together with the “young men out of the livery.” WACM, Bk. F, p. 82, GC. From 1536, only the young men are noted; see WACM, Bk. F, p. 13, GC.

123 WACM, Bk. F, pp. 29–30, GC.

124 WACM, Bk. E, p. 48, GC.

125 WACM, Bk. E, pp. 79, 81, GC.

126 Cooper, John K. D., “A Re-assessment of Some English Late Gothic and Early ‘Renaissance’ Plate-II,” Burlington Magazine 119, no. 892 (1977): 475–77Google Scholar, at 476; “Thomas Cromwell's Accounts, 1537,” no. 782, Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic of the Reign of Henry VIII: Preserved in the Public Record Office, the British Museum, and Elsewhere, vol. 14, part 2, ed. James Gairdner and R. H. Brodie (London, 1895).

127 WACM, Bk. D, p. 291, GC.

128 WACM, Bk. F, pp. 41–42, GC.

129 WACM, Bk. F, pp. 61–62, GC.

130 Riley, H. T., Liber Albus: The White Book of the City of London, Compiled A.D. 1419 by John Carpenter, Common Clerk, Richard Whitington, Mayor (London, 1861), 237Google Scholar.

131 Susan Foister and Tim Batchelor, Holbein in England (London, 2006), 66.

132 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 26–27.

133 WACM, Bk. F, pp. 60, 63, 73, GC.

134 “Cornelius Hays,” England's Immigrants, 1330–1550: Resident Aliens in the Late Middle Ages, accessed 27 November 2018, https://www.englandsimmigrants.com/person/29042.

135 “Journal of the Court of Common Council, no. 13, 1527–36,” COL/CC/01/01/013, fols. 124–26, London Metropolitan Archives; “Repertory of the Court of Aldermen, no. 8, 1528–33,” COL/CA/01/01/008, fols. 22v, 26, London Metropolitan Archives.

136 WACM, Bk. F, pp. 53, 157, GC.

137 WACM, Bk. G, p. 33, GC.

138 For a recent reflection on the value of social network analysis in history, see Claire Lemercier, “Formal Network Methods in History: Why and How?,” in Social Networks, Political Institutions, and Rural Societies, ed. Georg Fertig (Turnhout, 2015), 281–310. Justin Colson has used social network analysis to explore the structure of the London Fishmongers’ Company in the fifteenth century; see “London's Forgotten Company? Fishmongers: Their Trade and Their Networks in Later Medieval London,” in The Medieval Merchant: Proceedings of the 2012 Harlaxton Symposium, ed. Caroline Mary Barron and Anne F. Sutton (Donington, Lincs, 2014), 20–40.

139 Lutkin, “Settled or Fleeting?,” 153–54; Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 112–14.

140 WACM, Bk. C, p. 81, GC.

141 “Deposition Book of the London Consistory Court, 1510–16,” DL/C/0206, fols. 325v–26, London Metropolitan Archives.

142 WACM, Bk. F, p. 180, GC.

143 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, p. 415, GC.

144 WACM, Bk. C, p. 162, GC; WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, pp. 497, GC.

145 “Indictment of John Maydman for the murder of Paul Bugderem, 6 June 1517,” The National Archives (hereafter TNA), KB 9/474, m. 61.

146 See reference to him as “John Aleyn, alias John Brabander,” in WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, pp. 393–96, GC.

147 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, pp. 311, 354, GC.

148 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, p. 412, 354, GC.

149 WACM, Bk. F, pp. 41–2, 44, GC.

150 WACM, Bk. F, p. 73, GC.

151 Challis, Tudor Coinage, 36.

152 WACM, Bk. C, pp. 89, 164, GC; WACM, Bk. D, p. 42, GC.

153 WACM, Bk. D, p. 117, GC.

154 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 234–35.

155 Brussell and Hayes are discussed above. John Arnold, Henry Baase (or Baace) and John van Delf were suppliers to Henry VII featured in his Chamber Accounts; see TNA, E 101/415/3; TNA, E 36/214; British Library, Add. MS 21481. This material can be accessed via The Chamber Books of Henry VII and Henry VIII, 1485–1521, ed. M. M. Condon et al., accessed 23 April 2019, https://www.dhi.ac.uk/chamber-books/manuscripts.

156 WACM, Bk. B, p. 408, GC.

157 TNA, E 36/214, fols. 63, 74v; BL, Add. MS 7099, fol. 65. Both references were accessed through The Chamber Books of Henry VII and Henry VIII, http://www.dhi.ac.uk/chamber-books/manuscripts.

158 There is little direct evidence for this in the immigrant community, but similar practices were apparent among English artisan and mercantile women. Hanawalt, Barbara A., The Wealth of Wives: Women, Law, and Economy in Late Medieval London (Oxford, 2007), chap. 8Google Scholar.

159 Wethers rode to meet Queen Anne of Cleves as one of the king's servants in 1540. WACM, Bk. F, pp. 165–66, GC. Trappes supplied the crown in the mid-1530s. “The King's New Year's Gifts, 20 January 1533/4,” Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic of the Reign of Henry VIII, vol. 7, ed. James Gairdner (London, 1883), no. 91; “The King's Debts, 1536,” no. 1419, Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic of the Reign of Henry VIII, vol. 11, ed. James Gairdner (London, 1888).

160 Reddaway and Walker, Early History of the Goldsmiths, 211.

161 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, p. 415, GC; WACM, Bk. D, pp. 198, 262, 264, 266, GC; WACM, Bk. F, p. 141, GC.

162 Luu, Immigrants and the Industries of London, 236.

163 “Robert Amadas's Accounts, 2 March 1528/9,” no. 5341, Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic of the Reign of Henry VIII, vol. 4, ed. J. S. Brewer (London, 1875).

164 WACM, Bk. C, pp. 184, 200, GC; WACM, Bk. D, pp. 10, 47, 82, 114, 138, 198, 210, 270, GC.

165 For example, see “Thomas Cromwell's Accounts, 28 June 1534,” no. 717, and “Payments, 29 October 1533,” no. 1367, Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic of the Reign of Henry VIII, vol. 6, ed. James Gairdner (London, 1882); “The King's New Year's Gifts, 20 January 1533/4,” no. 91, and “Diets of Ambassadors, 31 January 1533/4,” no. 137, Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic of the Reign of Henry VIII.

166 Glanville, Philippa, “Robert Amadas, Goldsmith: Court Jeweller to King Henry VIII,” Proceedings of the Silver Society 3, no. 5 (1986): 111Google Scholar.

167 WACM, Bk. E, p. 90, GC.

168 WACM, Bk. A, vol. 2, p. 408, GC.

169 WACM, Bk. E, p. 79, GC.

170 WACM, Bk. F, p. 43, GC.

171 WACM, Bk. F, pp. 140, 142, GC.

172 WACM, Bk. F, p. 141, GC.

173 WACM, Bk. G, pp. 30–33, GC.

174 Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, Immigrant England, 195–98.

175 Prak, Citizens without Nations, 97–100; De Meester, “Migrant Workers and Illicit Labour,” 26–27.

176 Esser, “They Obey All Magistrates.”