Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T22:14:38.645Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Dark Strangers” in Our Midst: Discourses of Race and Nation in Britain, 1947–1963

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2014

Chris Waters
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

It has been more than a decade since Benedict Anderson urged us to consider the nation a particular kind of cultural artefact and to study national communities in terms of the style in which they are imagined. Anticipating Anderson's seminal work, Enoch Powell, the Biblical scholar, Ulster Unionist M.P., and 1960s advocate of the voluntary repatriation of people of color in Britain likewise suggested that the “life of nations … is lived largely in the imagination.” He also noted that the myths on which Britain's “corporate imagination” rested had, since 1945, become severely impoverished. Amidst the rubble produced by the collapse of many of those myths scholars have begun to problematize the various components of national identity that, customarily, have been taken for granted as “real” rather than invented. They have also begun to trace the manner by which the national community has constantly been imagined and reimagined in the past. Some of their more insightful work has considered the articulation of Englishness against other nationalities in the United Kingdom, particularly the Irish. This had led Linda Colley to suggest that national identity is always contingent and relational, the product of boundaries drawn up to distinguish between the collective self and the other.

In this essay, I want to suggest that Britain's wartime sense of national unity, generated through the struggle against fascist Germany, began to crumble after 1945. This gradual erosion of national cohesion, coupled with Britain's failure to generate new narratives of national purpose through the rhetoric of the Cold War, led to a veritable crisis of national self-representation in the 1950s, a crisis compounded by domestic social dislocation and the rapid emergence of the political, military, and economic hegemony of the United States.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 36 , Issue 2: Twentieth-Century British Studies , April 1997 , pp. 207 - 238
Copyright
Copyright © North American Conference of British Studies 1997

References

1 Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983), p. 13Google Scholar.

2 Powell, Enoch, Freedom and Reality (Kingswood, Surrey, 1969), pp. 324–25Google Scholar. For Powell and national identity, see Nairn, Tom, The Break-Up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism, 2d ed. (London, 1981), pp. 256–90Google Scholar.

3 Colley, Linda, “Britishness and Otherness: An Argument,” Journal of British Studies 31, no. 4 (1992): 311CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Colls, Robert and Dodd, Philip, eds., Englishness: Politics and Culture, 1880–1920 (London, 1986)Google Scholar; Crick, Bernard, “The English and the British,” in National Identities: The Constitution of the United Kingdom, ed. Crick, Bernard (Oxford, 1991), pp. 90–104Google Scholar.

4 Goulbourne, Harry, Ethnicity and Nationalism in Post-Imperial Britain (Cambridge, 1991), p. 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also pp. 80–83.

5 Miles, Robert, Racism (London, 1989), pp. 38–39Google Scholar. For related ideas that have influenced my argument, see Solomos, John, Race and Racism in Britain, 2d ed. (London, 1993), chaps. 8 and 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Balibar, Etienne, “Racism and Nationalism,” in Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities, ed. Balibar, Etienne and Wallerstein, Immanuel (London, 1991), pp. 37–67Google Scholar; Miles, Robert, Racism after Race Relations (London, 1993), chap. 2Google Scholar.

6 Wickenden, James, Colour in Britain (London, 1958), pp. 2–4Google Scholar; Patterson, Sheila, Dark Strangers: A Sociological Study of the Absorption of a Recent West Indian Migrant Group in Brixton, South London (1963; abridged, ed., London, 1965), p. 359Google Scholar—all subsequent references are to this 1965 Pelican edition; Peach, Ceri, West Indian Migration to Britain: A Social Geography (Oxford, 1968)Google Scholar.

7 Rich, Paul B., Race and Empire in British Politics, 2d ed. (Cambridge, 1990), p. 188Google Scholar. I am using the term “Black” here as a construct (hence the capitalization), one that is commonly used in Britain to refer to all people of color, including those of South Asian ancestry.

8 The writers on whom this essay focuses slip back and forth between discussing the English and the British. This is not the place to examine the ways in which notions of Englishness have become hegemonic in discussions of the British (but see Crick's [n. 3] astute observations on this). Given the extent to which these writers attempted to map the essential cultural difference between Black migrants and the white residents of Britain in general, I have seen fit to use the term Britishness in discussing their project, except when the authors discussed refer explicitly to Englishness in the passages cited.

9 Patterson, Dark Strangers; Banton, Michael, White and Coloured: The Behaviour of British People towards Coloured Immigrants (London, 1959)Google Scholar, chap. 5 (title: “The Archetypal Stranger”); Plamenatz, John, “Strangers in Our Midst,” Race 7 (1965): 1–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 See, e.g., Miles, Robert, Racism and Migrant Labour (London, 1982), esp. chap. 2Google Scholar.

11 See Fryer, Peter, Staying Power: Black People in Britain since 1504 (London, 1984), chaps. 10–11Google Scholar; Ramdin, Ron, The Making of the Black Working Class in Britain (Aldershot, 1987), chap. 7Google Scholar.

12 I am borrowing here from Scott, Joan W., “The Evidence of Experience,” Critical Inquiry 17 (1991): 773–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Bhabha, Homi K., “DissemiNation: Time, Narrative, and the Margins of the Modern Nation,” in his Nation and Narration (London, 1990), pp. 294, 297Google Scholar.

14 Light, Alison, Forever England: Femininity, Literature and Conservatism between the Wars (London, 1991), pp. 8, 154Google Scholar. See also Samuel, Raphael, “Introduction,” in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, vol. 1, History and Politics, ed. Samuel, Raphael (London, 1989), p. xxivGoogle Scholar.

15 See Cloke, Tim, “‘Old England’ and Other Perspectives (Historical Traditions and Teaching),” New Community 12 (1985): 255CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Gerhardi, William, “Climate and Character,” in The English Genius: A Survey of the English Achievement and Character, ed. Kingsmill, Hugh (London, 1938), p. 62Google Scholar. For an elaboration of this theme, see Chase, Malcolm, “This Is No Claptrap: This Is Our Heritage,” in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, ed. Chase, Malcolm and Shaw, Christopher (Manchester, 1989), p. 131Google Scholar.

17 Orwell, George, “England Your England,” in his A Collection of Essays (New York, 1946), p. 254Google Scholar.

18 For Priestley, see Waters, Chris, “J. B. Priestley, (1894–1984): Englishness and the Politics of Nostalgia,” in After the Victorians: Private Conscience and Public Duty in Modern Britain, ed. Pedersen, Susan and Mandler, Peter (London, 1994), pp. 209–26Google Scholar; for Jennings, see Colls, Robert and Dodd, Philip, “Representing the Nation: British Documentary Film, 1930–45,” Screen 26 (1985): 21–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for the BBC, see Cardiff, David and Scannell, Paddy, “Broadcasting and National Unity,” in Impacts and Influences: Essays on Media Power in the Twentieth Century, ed. Curran, James, Smith, Anthony, and Wingate, Pauline (London, 1987), pp. 157–73Google Scholar. See also Hurd, Geoff, ed., National Fictions: World War Two in British Films and Television (London, 1984)Google Scholar; Taylor, Miles, “Patriotism, History and the Left in Twentieth-Century Britain,” Historical Journal 33 (1990): esp. 979–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rich, Paul, “A Question of Life and Death to England: Patriotism and the British Intellectuals, c. 1886–1945,” New Community 15 (1989): 491–508Google Scholar.

19 Samuel, p. xiv.

20 Tabili, Laura, “We Ask for British Justice”: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Imperial Britain (Ithaca, N.Y.: 1994), chap. 7, esp. pp. 156–7Google Scholar.

21 See Waters, Chris, “The Americanisation of the Masses: Cultural Criticism, the National Heritage and Working-Class Culture in the 1930s,” Social History Curators Group Journal 17 (1989–1990): 22–27Google Scholar.

22 Belloc, Hilaire, “English Verse,” in Kingsmill, , ed., p. 19Google Scholar.

23 Hertz, Frederick, Nationality in History and Politics: A Study of the Psychology and Sociology of National Sentiment and Character (New York, 1944), pp. 41–42Google Scholar.

24 Ginsberg, M., “National Character,” British Journal of Psychology 32 (1942): 188, 195–96Google Scholar. For the role played by the wartime state in soliciting scientific studies of national character, see Rose, Nikolas, Governing the Soul: The Shaping of the Private Self (London, 1990), esp. pp. 15–38Google Scholar.

25 Huizinga, J. H., Confessions of a European in England (London, 1958), p. 83Google Scholar.

26 Priestley, J. B., Three Men in New Suits (1945, new ed., London, 1984), pp. 139–40Google Scholar; see also p. 150.

27 Law, Richard, “The Individual and the Community,” in The Character of England, ed. Barker, Ernest (Oxford, 1947), p. 51Google Scholar.

28 Addison, Paul, Now the War Is Over: A Social History of Britain, 1945–51 (London, 1985), p. 28Google Scholar.

29 For a discussion, see Barr, Charles, Ealing Studios (London, 1987), pp. 80–107Google Scholar.

30 A colonial correspondent, “African Attitudes,” Twentieth Century 151 (1952): 19–25Google Scholar.

31 Williamson, Bill, “Memories, Vision and Hope: Themes in an Historical Sociology of Britain since the Second World War,” Journal of Historical Sociology 1 (1988): 170CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Parliamentary Papers (Commons), 1947–48, vol. 453, col. 1027. For a discussion of the 1948 citizenship debates, see Paul, Kathleen, “‘British Subjects’ and ‘British Stock’: Labour's Postwar Imperialism,” Journal of British Studies 35, no. 2 (1995): 233–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dummett, Ann and Nicol, Andrew, Subjects, Citizens, Aliens and Others: Nationality and Immigration Law (London, 1990)Google Scholar.

33 See Hall, Stuart, “Racism and Reaction,” in Five Views of Multi-Racial Britain, ed. Commission for Racial Equality (London, 1978), p. 25Google Scholar; Miles, , Racism after Race Relations (n. 5 above), pp. 67–68, 75, 77, 129Google Scholar; Lawrence , Errol, “Just Plain Common Sense: The ‘Roots’ of Racism,” in The Empire Strikes Back: Race and Racism in 70s Britain, ed. Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (London, 1982), pp. 65–70Google Scholar; Hall, Catherine, “Missionary Stories: Gender and Ethnicity in England in the 1830s and 1840s,” in her White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (London, 1992), pp. 205–54Google Scholar; Burton, Antoinette, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865–1915 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994), pp. 33–41Google Scholar.

34 See, e.g., Banton, Michael, “Beware of Strangers!” The Listener 59 (April 3, 1958): 566Google Scholar; Richmond, Anthony H., The Colour Problem (Harmondsworth, 1955), p. 243Google Scholar; Patterson, , Dark Strangers (n. 6 above), p. 210Google Scholar; Henderson, Judith, “A Sociological Report,” in Coloured Immigrants in Britain, ed. Griffith, J. A. G.et al. (London, 1960), pp. 104–16Google Scholar.

35 Patterson, , Dark Strangers, p. 211Google Scholar.

36 Glass, Ruth, London's Newcomers: The West Indian Migrants, University College, London, Centre for Urban Studies, Report No. 1 (Cambridge, Mass., 1961), pp. 146, 219Google Scholar. Politicians also worried about the postwar erosion of national cohesion: in 1948 eleven Labour M.P.s wrote to the Prime Minister arguing that an “influx of coloured people domiciled here is likely to impair the harmony, strength and cohesion of our public and social life and to cause discord and unhappiness” (quoted in Carter, Bob, Harris, Clive, and Joshi, Shirley, “The 1951–55 Conservative Government and the Racialization of Black Immigration,” Immigrants and Minorities 6 [1987]: 335)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Paul, Kathleen, “The Politics of Citizenship in Post-War Britain,” Contemporary Record 6 (Winter 1992): 452–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 Little, K. L., Negroes in Britain: A Study of Racial Relations in English Society (London, 1947), p. xiiGoogle Scholar.

38 Richmond, , Colour Problem, p. 301Google Scholar.

39 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” in Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader, ed. Williams, Patrick and Chrisman, Laura (New York, 1994), pp. 66–111Google Scholar.

40 Patterson's preliminary report was published as “A Recent West Indian Immigrant Group in Britain,” Race 1 (1960): 27–39Google Scholar. For recent discussion of the race relations paradigm, see Bourne, Jenny, “Cheerleaders and Ombudsmen: the Sociology of Race Relations in Britain,” Race & Class 21 (1980): 331–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rich, Race and Empire (n. 7 above), chap. 8; Banton, Michael, “The Influence of Colonial Status upon Black-White Relations in England, 1948–58,” Sociology 17 (1983): 546–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lyon, Michael, “Banton's Contribution to Racial Studies,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 8 (1985): 471–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For surveys written by its advocates, see Little, Kenneth, “Research Report No. 2: Department of Social Anthropology, the University of Edinburgh,” Sociological Review 8 (1960): 255–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Judith Henderson, pp. 45–121; Richmond, Anthony H., “Britain,” International Social Science Bulletin 10 (1958): 344–72Google Scholar.

41 See Philpott, Trevor, “Would You Let Your Daughter Marry a Negro?” Picture Post (October 30, 1954), pp. 21–23Google Scholar; Marchant, Hilda, “Thirty Thousand Colour Problems,” Picture Post (June 9, 1956), pp. 28–29, 38Google Scholar. See also Warth, Douglas, “A Herald Investigator into the Hidden Colour Bar,” Daily Herald (August 25–27, 1958), p. 4Google Scholar.

42 See Miles, , Racism (n. 5 above), pp. 46–49Google Scholar.

43 Little, Kenneth, “Letter,” Man 51 (1951): 17Google Scholar; Banton, Michael, The Coloured Quarter: Negro Immigrants in an English City (London, 1955), p. 14Google Scholar; Richmond, , Colour Problem, p. 13Google Scholar.

44 Bertram, G. C. L., West Indian Immigration, Eugenics Society Broadsheet No. 1 (London, 1958), p. 18Google Scholar. For a response, see “West Indian Immigration: Some Criticisms, Comments and a Rejoinder,” Eugenics Review 50 (1959): 251–57Google Scholar.

45 Miles, Robert, “The Riots of 1958: Notes on the Ideological Construction of ‘Race Relations’ as a Political Issue in Britain,” Immigrants and Minorities 3 (1984): 253CrossRefGoogle Scholar, “Racism and Nationalism in Britain,” in “Race” in Britain: Continuity and Change, ed. Husband, Charles (London: Hutchinson, 1982), esp. pp. 280–82, 285–86, 294Google Scholar, and Miles, , Racism, p. 72Google Scholar.

46 Patterson, , Dark Strangers (n. 6 above), p. 201Google Scholar.

47 Park, Robert Ezra, “The Concept of Social Distance” (1924), in his Race and Culture (Glencoe, Ill., 1950), p. 259Google Scholar. For an elaboration, see Lal, Barbara Ballis, “The ‘Chicago School’ of American Sociology, Symbolic Interactionism, and Race Relations Theory,” in Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations, ed. Rex, John and Mason, David (Cambridge, 1986), chap. 13Google Scholar. For Banton on Park, see Banton, , “1960: A Turning Point in the Study of Race Relations,” Daedalus 103, no. 2 (Spring 1974): 34–35Google Scholar.

48 Hoggart, Richard, The Uses of Literacy (1957, new ed., New Brunswick, N.J., 1992), p. 48Google Scholar.

49 Richmond, Anthony H., Colour Prejudice in Britain: A Study of West Indian Workers in Liverpool, 1941–1951 (London, 1954), p. 1Google Scholar.

50 Banton, Michael, “Negro Workers in Britain,” Twentieth Century 151 (1952): 42Google Scholar; Patterson, , Dark Strangers, p. 207Google Scholar.

51 See, e.g., Little, Kenneth, “The Position of Colored People in Britain,” Phylon 15 (1954): 58–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 Richmond, Anthony H., “Theoretical Orientations in Studies of Ethnic Group Relations in Britain,” Man 57, no. 146 (1957): 122CrossRefGoogle Scholar, see also Colour Prejudice, pp. 6–7.

53 Little, , Negroes in Britain (n. 37 above), p. xiGoogle Scholar.

54 See Gorer, Geoffrey, “National Character: Theory and Practice,” in The Study of Culture at a Distance, ed. Mead, Margaret and Métraux, Rhoda (Chicago, 1953), pp. 57–82Google Scholar.

55 Gorer, Geoffrey, Exploring English Character: A Study of the Morals and Behaviour of the English People (New York, 1955), p. 21Google Scholar; see also p. 289. Gorer's belief in the importance of English “shyness” and “fear of the stranger” emerged from his investigative work in Peckham, a lower-middle-class district of London, which he explored in “Some Notes on British Character,” Horizon 20 (December 1949–January 1950): 369–79Google Scholar.

56 See Richmond, Anthony H., “Applied Social Science and Public Policy Concerning Racial Relations in Britain,” Race 1 (1960): 18Google Scholar, “Theoretical Orientations,” p. 122, and “Britain” (n. 40 above), p. 347; Patterson, , Dark Strangers (n. 6 above), p. 207Google Scholar; Henderson (n. 34 above), pp. 73, 100; and especially Banton, , White and Coloured (n. 9 above), pp. 82–83Google Scholar.

57 Henderson, , “A Sociological Report” p. 100Google Scholar.

58 Patterson, , Dark Strangers, pp. 178–79Google Scholar.

59 Ibid., p. 185.

60 Ibid., p. 179.

61 Banton, White and Coloured, title of chap. 5; Patterson, , Dark Strangers, p. 209, also p. 250Google Scholar: “The coloured Negroid migrants are the ultimate strangers to the insular British.”

62 Rose, E. J. B., Colour and Citizenship: A Report on British Race Relations (Oxford, 1969), chap. 3, esp. p. 33Google Scholar.

63 Park, Robert, “The Nature of Race Relations” (1939), in his Race and Culture (n. 47 above), p. 114Google Scholar. Banton acknowledged his debt to Park: “Sociology and Race Relations,” Race 1 (1959): 7–9Google Scholar. Although the notion of “strangeness” found its clearest expression in Banton's work, it can be traced back to Little, , Negroes in Britain (n. 37 above), see p. 238Google Scholar. See also Wickenden, , Colour in Britain (n. 6 above), p. 1Google Scholar; Glass (n. 36 above), pp. 98–105; Eldridge, J. E.T., “Overseas Students at Leicester University: Some Problems of Adjustment and Communication,” Race 2 (1960): 50–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Holton, James E., “The Status of the Colored in Britain,” Phylon 22 (1961): 31–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Richmond, Anthony H., “Immigration as a Social Process: The Case of Coloured Colonials in the United Kingdom,” Social and Economic Studies 5 (1956): 185–201Google Scholar.

64 Simmel, Georg, “The Stranger,” in The Sociology of Georg Simmel, ed. and trans. Wolff, Kurt H. (New York, 1950)Google Scholar.

65 See Feldman, David, “The Importance of Being English: Jewish Immigration and the Decay of Liberal England,” in Metropolis. London. Histories and Representations since 1800, ed. Feldman, David and Jones, Gareth Stedman (London, 1989), pp. 72–78Google Scholar.

66 Banton, , Coloured Quarter (n. 43 above), pp. 116–17Google Scholar.

67 Patterson, , Dark Strangers (n. 6 above), p. 13Google Scholar.

68 Banton, , White and Coloured (n. 9 above), p. 73Google Scholar.

69 See, e.g., Egginton, Joyce, They Seek a Living (London, 1957), p. 39Google Scholar.

70 Patterson, , Dark Strangers, p. 212Google Scholar.

71 Richmond, , “Theoretical Orientations” (n. 52 above), p. 122Google Scholar and “Britain” (n. 40 above), p. 370; Constantine, Learie, Colour Bar (London, 1954), p. 67Google Scholar.

72 Banton, , White and Coloured, pp. 73, 77–78, 113Google Scholar.

73 Bhabha, Homi, “Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse,” October 28 (1984): 126CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Patterson, , Dark Strangers, p. 295Google Scholar; see also p. 290.

75 The Sunday Times, August 25, 1957, p. 10. On how children became a focus for displaced fears about miscegenation, see Hall, Stuart, “Reconstruction Work,” Ten. 8, no. 16 (1984): 9Google Scholar.

76 Richmond, , Colour Problem (n. 34 above), p. 290Google Scholar; see also Patterson, , Dark Strangers, p. 250Google Scholar.

77 Banton, , Coloured Quarter (n. 43 above), pp. 13, 150Google Scholar. See also Richmond, , Colour Problem, p. 280Google Scholar, “Immigration as a Social Process” (n. 63 above), p. 195. For similar concerns in government circles, see Dean, D.W., “Coping with Colonial Immigration, the Cold War and Colonial Policy: The Labour Government and Black Communities in Great Britain, 1945–51,” Immigrants and Minorities 6 (1987): 309CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bob Carter et al. (n. 36 above), p. 341.

78 Parker, Andrewet al., “Introduction,” in Nationalisms and Sexuality, ed. Parker, Andrewet al. (New York, 1992), pp. 6, 10Google Scholar. For a discussion of how sexualizing metaphors and domesticating procedures defined the “orient” against the “Occident” in the nineteenth century, see Armstrong, Nancy, “The Occidental Alice,” differences 2 (1990): 3–40Google Scholar.

79 Banton, , Coloured Quarter, p. 228Google Scholar.

80 Ibid. On bohemianism, race, and marginality in London in the 1950s, see Farson, Daniel, Soho in the Fifties (London, 1987)Google Scholar.

81 Quoted in Fyvel, T. R., Troublemakers: Rebellious Youth in an Affluent Society (New York, 1961), p. 84Google Scholar.

82 See Catherine Hall (n. 33 above), p. 212.

83 Little, Kenneth, Colour and Commonsense, Fabian Tract 315 (London, 1958), p. 31Google Scholar.

84 Banton, , Coloured Quarter, p. 250Google Scholar. See also Richmond, , Colour Problem, p. 254Google Scholar; Patterson, , Dark Strangers (n. 6 above), pp. 194–96Google Scholar.

85 Richmond, , Colour Prejudice (n. 49 above), p. 153Google Scholar.

86 For critiques of “race relations” that hold this position, see Hiro, Dilip, Black British White British: A History of Race Relations in Britain (rev. ed., London, 1991), p. 305Google Scholar; Jenny Bourne (n. 40 above), p. 332.

87 Richmond, , Colour Problem (n. 34 above), p. 242Google Scholar, Colour Prejudice, pp. 162–65, and “Applied Social Science and Public Policy” (n. 56 above), p. 16; Patterson, , Dark Strangers, p. 405Google Scholar; Banton, , Coloured Quarter (n. 43 above), p. 235Google Scholar, “The Social Groupings of Some West African Workers in Britain,” Man 53, no. 203 (1953), p. 133Google Scholar, and White and Coloured (n. 9 above), p. 88. See also Hatch, Stephen, “Coloured People in School Textbooks,” Race 4 (1962): 63–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

88 Emecheta, Buchi, Head above Water: An Autobiography (London, 1986), pp. 26–29Google Scholar.

89 Banton, , White and Coloured, p. 78Google Scholar.

90 Ibid., p. 74.

91 Gilroy, Paul, “The End of Anti-Racism,” New Community 17 (1990): 80Google Scholar. See also Gilroy, , There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack (London, 1987), p. 30Google Scholar.

92 Banton, , White and Coloured, pp. 179–80Google Scholar.

93 Hill, John, “The British ‘Social Problem’ Film: ‘Violent Playground’ and ‘Sapphire’,” Screen 26 (1985): 47CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Dyer, Richard, “White,” in his The Matter of Images: Essays in Representation (London, 1993), esp. pp. 146–48Google Scholar.

94 Banton, , White and Coloured, p. 113Google Scholar.

95 Plamenatz (n. 9 above), p. 1.

96 Banton, , “The Influence of Colonial Status” (n. 40 above), p. 556Google Scholar.

97 Holton (n. 63 above), pp. 39–40.

98 Glass (n. 36 above), pp. 214-15. The best account of the riots written soon thereafter is provided by Glass, pp. 127–211. For recent discussions, see Pilkington, Edward, Beyond the Mother Country: West Indians and the Notting Hill White Riots (London, 1988)Google Scholar; Miles, “The Riots of 1958” (n. 45 above).

99 Fazakerley, G. R., A Stranger Here (London, 1959), p. 192Google Scholar.

100 Kumar, Krishan, “A Child and a Stranger: On Growing Out of English Culture,” in Colour, Culture and Consciousness: Immigrant Intellectuals in Britain, ed. Parekh, Bhikhu (London, 1974), p. 96Google Scholar. For similar views, see Braithwaite, E. R., “The ‘Colored Immigrant’ in Britain,” Daedalus 96, no. 4 (Winter 1967): 496–511Google Scholar; Mullard, Chris, Black Britain (London, 1973), esp. chap. 1Google Scholar.

101 Carter, Trevor with Coussins, Jean, Shattering Illusions: West Indians in British Politics (London, 1986), p. 42Google Scholar.

102 Quoted in Pilkington, p. 143.

103 Banton, , “1960: A Turning Point” (n. 47 above), esp. pp. 36–39Google Scholar.

104 Balibar, Etienne, “Is There a ‘Neo-Racism’?” in Balibar, and Wallerstein, , eds. (n. 5 above), pp. 21–22Google Scholar.

105 Guardian, November 9, 1981, quoted in Solomos, , Race and Racism in Britain (n. 5 above), p. 183Google Scholar.

106 Cloke (n. 15 above), p. 256. See also Miles, , Racism (n. 5 above), pp. 62–63Google Scholar; Solomos, John, “Contemporary Forms of Racial Ideology in British Society,” Race Relations Abstracts 16 (1991): 2Google Scholar. For the “new racism” of the later 1960s and 1970s, see Barker, Martin, The New Racism (London, 1981)Google Scholar; for the relationship between the “new racism” and national identity, see Gilroy, There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack (n. 91 above), chap. 2; for the latest, and most astute study of Powellite racial discourse, see Smith, Anna Marie, New Right Discourse on Race and Sexuality: Britain, 1968–1990 (Cambridge, 1994), chap. 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

107 See, e.g., Casey, John, “One Nation: The Politics of Race,” Salisbury Review, no. 1 (Autumn 1982): 23–28Google Scholar.

108 Powell (n. 2 above), p. 286.

109 For an elaboration of this point, see Waters, Chris, “The Pink and the Black: Race and Sex in Postwar Britain,” Transition 69 (Spring 1996): 210–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

110 Mercer, Kobena, “Recoding Narratives of Race and Nation,” in Black Film British Cinema (Institute of Contemporary Arts Documents no. 7) (London, 1988), pp. 4–14Google Scholar.

111 Kureishi, Hanif, “The Rainbow Sign,” in his London Kills Me (Harmondsworth, 1992), pp. 34–36Google Scholar.

112 bell hooks, “Postmodern Blackness,” in Williams, and Chrisman, , eds. (n. 39 above), p. 425Google Scholar.

113 Hall, Stuart, “Minimal Selves,” in The Real Me: Post-Modernism and the Question of Identity (Institute of Contemporary Arts Documents no. 6) (London, 1987), p. 45Google Scholar. See also Gilroy, , There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack, p. 69Google Scholar. For a recent attempt to reimagine national identity in Britain, see Jeater, Diana, “Roast Beef and Reggae Music: The Passing of Whiteness,” New Formations 18 (1992): 107–21Google Scholar.

114 Banton, , “The Influence of Colonial Status” (n. 40 above), p. 557Google Scholar.