Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-07T01:58:03.156Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Phoenix Rising: Working-Class Life and Urban Reconstruction, c. 1945–1967

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2015

Abstract

Between 1945 and 1967, England's town and city centers were reconstructed. This article argues that this process of civic redevelopment transformed working-class people's experience of urban life. Frequently represented as a social problem or simply ignored by prewar planning and political rhetoric on civic participation, working-class people were treated as vital to civic life in postwar England. This change had profound implications for people's experience of civic life and for class identity. However, historians of urban change have focused on planners and politicians, while the few histories of postwar working-class life that exist concentrate on selfhood, home, and neighborhood life. Drawing on personal testimonies, press reports, and planning documents this paper argues that working-class people were active agents of change in England's civic centers. Moreover, the experience of civic reconstruction encouraged the development of a sense of entitlement for a more secure and fuller life than earlier generations had experienced. The rebuilding of the civic centers was widely recognized as an achievement of ordinary working-class people, and the rebuilt centers were understood as places that should and could provide for their needs.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 “Tea and Sympathy in the Pump Room,” Manchester Guardian, 7 May 1958, 5.

2 Davies, Andrew, Leisure, Gender and Poverty: Working-Class Culture in Salford and Manchester, 1900–1939 (Buckingham, 1992)Google Scholar; Alexander, Sally, “Becoming a Woman in London in the 1920s and 1930s,” in Becoming a Woman and Other Essays in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Feminist History, ed. Alexander, Sally (London, 1994), 203–24Google Scholar; Field, Geoffrey, Blood, Sweat and Toil: Remaking the British Working Class, 1939–45 (Oxford, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Clapson, Mark, Invincible Green Suburbs, Brave New Towns: Social Change and Urban Dispersal in Post-War England (Manchester, 1998)Google Scholar; Roberts, Elizabeth, Women and Families: An Oral History, 1940–1970 (Oxford, 1995)Google Scholar; Moran, Joe, “Imagining the Street in Post-War Britain,” Urban History 39, no. 1 (February 2012): 166–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Hoggart, Richard, The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working-Class Life with Special Reference to Publications and Entertainments (London, 1957)Google Scholar; Young, Michael and Willmott, Peter, Family and Kinship in East London (London, 1957)Google Scholar.

5 Gunn, Simon, “The Rise and Fall of British Urban Modernism: Planning Bradford, circa 1945–1970,” Journal of British Studies 48, no. 3 (July 2010): 849–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 853.

6 For example, see Fielding, Steven, “What Did ‘The People’ Want? The Meaning of the 1945 General Election,” Historical Journal 35, no. 3 (September 1992): 623–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Waters, Chris, “Representations of Everyday Life: L. S. Lowry and the Landscape of Memory in Postwar Britain,” Representations 65 (Winter 1999): 121–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mort, Frank, “Social and Symbolic Fathers and Sons in Postwar Britain,” Journal of British Studies 38, no. 3 (July 1999): 353–84CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Tebbutt, Melanie, “Imagined Families and Vanished Communities: Memories of a Working-Class Life in Northampton,” History Workshop Journal 73, no. 1 (Spring 2012): 144–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Sandbrook, Dominic, Never Had It So Good: A History of Britain from Suez to the Beatles (London, 2005)Google Scholar.

8 For example, see Hasegawa, Junichi, Replanning the Blitzed City Centre: A Comparative Study of Bristol, Coventry, and Southampton, 1941–1950 (Buckingham, 1992)Google Scholar; Shapely, Peter, “Civic Pride and Redevelopment in the Post-War British City,” Urban History 39, no. 2 (May 2012): 310–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Flinn, Catherine, “The City of Our Dreams? The Political and Economic Realities of Rebuilding Britain's Blitzed Cities, 1945–54,” Twentieth Century British History 23, no. 2 (June 2012): 221–45CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Mort, Frank, “Fantasies of Metropolitan Life: Planning London in the 1940s,” Journal of British Studies 43, no. 1 (January 2004): 120–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gunn, “British Urban Modernism”; Ortolano, Guy, “Planning the Urban Future in 1960s Britain,” Historical Journal 54, no. 2 (June 2011): 477507CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moran, Joe, “Crossing the Road in Britain, 1931–1976,” Historical Journal 49, no. 2 (June 2006): 494–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Tiratsoo, Nick, Reconstruction, Affluence and Labour Politics: Coventry, 1945–1960 (London, 1990)Google Scholar.

10 Moran, Joe, “Housing, Memory and Everyday Life in Contemporary Britain,” Cultural Studies 18, no. 4 (July 2004): 607–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 615.

11 Steedman, Carolyn, Landscape for a Good Woman (London, 1986), 122Google Scholar.

12 Brooke, Stephen, “Revisiting Southam Street: Class, Generation, Gender, and Race in the Photography of Roger Mayne,” Journal of British Studies 53, no. 2 (April 2014): 453–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 457.

13 Jones, Ben, The Working Class in Mid-Twentieth-Century England (Manchester, 2012)Google Scholar.

14 Percy, Ruth, “Picket Lines and Parades: Labour and Urban Space in Early Twentieth-Century London and Chicago,” Urban History 41, no. 3 (August 2014): 456–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 458.

15 Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class, 2nd ed. (Harmondsworth, 1968), 810Google Scholar.

16 Todd, Selina, The People: The Rise and Fall of the Working Class 1910–2010 (London, 2014), 252–68Google Scholar; Jones, The Working Class in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.

17 McKibbin, Ross, Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (Oxford, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Charlesworth, Simon, A Phenomenology of Working Class Experience (Cambridge, 2000)Google Scholar; Rogaly, Ben and Taylor, Becky, Moving Histories of Class and Community: Identity, Place and Belonging in Contemporary England (Houndmills, 2011)Google Scholar; Skeggs, Beverley, Formations of Class and Gender: Becoming Respectable (London, 1997)Google Scholar; Todd, The People, chap. 16.

19 Field, Blood, Sweat and Toil, chap. 9.

20 The author has digitized these testimonies, which are held at the Economic and Social Data Service, University of Essex (ESDS) and are as follows: ESDS, Study Number (SN) 6586, Digitization of Richard Brown, Orientation to Work and Industrial Behaviour of Shipbuilding Workers 1968–1969: manual workers' questionnaires; ESDS, SN 6567, Crown Street, 1955–1963; and ESDS, SN 6512, Digitized sample of the Affluent Worker in the Class Structure, 1961–1962.

21 On the use of such autobiographies to study working-class experience, see Jones, Ben, “The Uses of Nostalgia: Autobiography, Community Publishing and Working Class Neighbourhoods in Post-War England,” Cultural and Social History 7, no. 3 (September 2010): 355–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 These interviews were conducted by Dr. Hilary Young. Copies of transcripts are available from the author on request.

23 Kidd, Alan J. and Roberts, K., eds., City, Class and Culture: Studies of Social Policy and Cultural Production in Victorian Manchester (Manchester, 1985)Google Scholar; Rodger, Richard and Colls, Robert, eds., Cities of Ideas: Civil Society and Urban Governance in Britain 1800–2000: Essays in Honour of David Reeder (Aldershot, 2004)Google Scholar; Briggs, Asa, Victorian Cities (London, 1963)Google Scholar.

24 Savage, Mike, Identities and Social Change in Britain since 1940 (Oxford, 2010), 230–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Clapson, Mark, Working-Class Suburb: Social Change on an English Council Estate, 1930–2010 (Manchester, 2012)Google Scholar.

26 Jones, Phil, “‘…A Fairer and Nobler City’—Lutyens and Abercrombie's Plan for the City of Hull 1945,” Planning Perspectives 13, no. 3 (Autumn 1998): 301–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 314.

27 City of Leicester Publicity and Development Department, Leicester: Post War Civic Affairs (Leicester, 1945), 45Google Scholar.

28 Watson, John Paton et al. , A Plan for Plymouth (Plymouth, UK, 1943), 28Google Scholar.

29 Sussex Rural Community Council, Tomorrow in East Sussex: A Contribution by the Sussex Rural Community Council towards Post-War Planning (London, 1946), 7Google Scholar.

30 Town Improvement and Streets Committee, Plan: Newcastle upon Tyne, 1945 (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1945), 10Google Scholar.

31 City of Leicester, Leicester, 19.

32 Corporation of Coventry, The Future Coventry (Coventry, 1946), 2Google Scholar.

33 Quoted in Hubbard, Phil, Faire, Lucy, and Lilley, Keith, “Memorials to Modernity? Public Art in the ‘City of the Future,’” Landscape Research 28, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 147–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 155.

34 Watson et al., Plan for Plymouth, 70.

35 Town Improvement and Streets Committee, Newcastle upon Tyne, 1945, 79.

36 “First Tenants Are Now in Luxury Flats,” Manchester Evening News, 4 July 1948, 4.

37 Fielding, “What Did ‘The People’ Want?”

38 Langhamer, Claire, “The Meanings of Home in Post-War Britain,” Journal of Contemporary History 40, no. 2 (April 2005): 341–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Editorial, Liverpool Echo, 11 May 1948, 7.

40 “Britain ‘Forgot to Build for Fun,’” Daily Mirror, 8 October 1946, 5.

41 On the policing of teenagers, see Jackson, Louise A., ‘“The Coffee Club Menace’: Policing Youth, Leisure and Sexuality in Post-War Manchester,” Cultural and Social History 5, no. 3 (September 2008): 289308CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the surveillance of council tenants' homes, see Taylor, Becky and Rogaly, Ben, ‘“Mrs Fairly is a Dirty, Lazy Type’: Unsatisfactory Housings and the Problem of Problem Families in Norwich 1942–1963,” Twentieth Century British History 18, no. 4 (Winter 2007): 429–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on planners' neglect of immigrants, see Gunn, “British Urban Modernism,” 865–66.

42 On the importance of this representation of working-class life in the British labor movement, see Clarke, Anna, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (Berkeley, 1995)Google Scholar, and Rose, Sonya O., Which People's War? National Identity and Citizenship in Wartime Britain 1939–1945 (Oxford, 2003)Google Scholar.

43 Rowland, Nicholas R. and Senior, Derek, City of Manchester Plan (Manchester, 1945), 104Google Scholar.

44 Jackson, ‘“The Coffee Club Menace.’”

45 Hasegawa, Replanning the Blitzed City Centre.

46 “Three Plan a Party but 4,700 Won't Be Going,” Daily Mirror, 21 February 1947, 5.

47 Terry Rimmer (b. 1937), interviewed by Hilary Young (2008).

48 Bill Rainford (b. 1948), interviewed by Hilary Young (2008).

49 Barbara Rainford (b. 1949), interviewed by Hilary Young (2008).

50 ESDS, SN 6567, Crown Street, 1955–1963.

51 Alexander, Sally, “Memory Talk: London Childhoods,” in Memory, Histories, Theories, Debates, ed. Radstone, Susannah and Schwarz, Bill (New York, 2010), 235–45Google Scholar, at 245.

52 Alexander, Sally, “A New Civilization? London Surveyed 1928–1940s,” History Workshop Journal 64, no. 1 (January 2007): 296320CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 296.

53 Lucy Noakes, “‘No More Useless Lumps of Stone’: Reconstruction and Remembrance in 1940s Britain,” unpublished paper (2013), 27.

54 For an account of Coventry council's role in reconstruction during the 1940s, see Hasegawa, Junichi, “The Rise and Fall of Radical Reconstruction in 1940s Britain,” Twentieth Century British History 10, no. 2 (Summer 1999): 137–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Tiratsoo, Reconstruction, 33.

56 Light, A. and Samuel, R., “Doing the Lambeth Walk,” in Theatres of Memory: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture, ed. Samuel, Raphael (London, 2012), 390–99Google Scholar, at 397.

57 Frank Gogerty (b. 1918), interviewed by Hilary Young (2006).

58 Quoted in Phil Hubbard, Lucy Faire, and Keith Lilley, “Memorials to Modernity?,” 160.

59 On the importance of this tradition in Britain's heritage industry throughout the twentieth century, see Delap, Lucy, Knowing Their Place: Domestic Service in Twentieth Century Britain (Oxford, 2011), 206–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Trevor Teasdel, “Born in the Fifties—A Coventry Tale,” http://coventrymusichistory.typepad.com/blog/2007/03/born-in-the-50s-a-coventry-tale.html (accessed 3 April 2014).

61 Alan Watkins (b. 1941), interviewed by Hilary Young (2007).

62 Hubbard, Faire, and Lilley, “Memorials to Modernity?,” 148.

63 Spence, Basil, Phoenix at Coventry: The Building of a Cathedral (London, 1964)Google Scholar.

64 Teasdel, “Born in the Fifties.”

65 Judy Walker (b. 1940), interviewed by Hilary Young (2007).

66 “We're Bustling,” Daily Mirror, 12 January 1967, 7. See also Flinn, Catherine, “‘Exeter Phoenix’: Politics and the Rebuilding of a Blitzed City,” Southern History 30 (2008): 104–27Google Scholar.

67 Hubbard, Faire, and Lilley, “Memorials to Modernity?,” 148.

68 Tiratsoo, Nick, “The Reconstruction of Blitzed British Cities, 1945–55: Myths and Reality,” Contemporary British History 14, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 2744CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clapson, Mark, “Suburban Paradox? Planners' Intentions and Residents’ Preferences in Two New Towns of the 1960s: Reston, Virginia and Milton Keynes, England,” Planning Perspectives 17, no. 2 (April 2002): 145–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gunn, Simon, “The Buchanan Report, Environment and the Problem of Traffic in 1960s Britain,” Twentieth Century British History 22, no. 4 (Winter 2011): 521–42CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

69 Moran, “Imagining the Street,” 176.

70 Gunn, Simon, “People and the Car: The Expansion of Automobility in Urban Britain, c. 1955–70,” Social History 38, no. 2 (Summer 2013): 220–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 Bowden, Sue, “The New Consumerism,” in Twentieth Century Britain: Economic, Social and Cultural Change, ed. Johnson, Paul (London, 1955), 242–62Google Scholar.

72 Universities of Liverpool and Sheffield, Neighbourhood and Community, 103.

73 Longstreth-Thompson, Francis, Merseyside Plan, 1944 (London, 1945), 37Google Scholar; Corporation of Coventry, Coventry, 3, 9.

74 Pooley, Colin G. and Turnbull, Jean, “Commuting, Transport and Urban Form: Manchester and Glasgow in the Mid-Twentieth Century,” Urban History 27, no. 3 (December 2000): 360–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Hubbard, Jane and Yorkshire Art Circus, ed., We Thought It Was Heaven Tomorrow: Local Voices from Pontefract, Castleford, Ledstone Luck, Meanwood and Thorner, 1945–1955 (Pontefract, UK, 1985), 1213Google Scholar.

76 Todd, The People, 182–83; Pooley and Turnbull, “Commuting,” 373.

77 ESDS, SN 6567, Crown Street, 1955–1963.

78 Terry Rimmer (b. 1937), interviewed by Hilary Young (2008).

79 Horn, Adrian, Juke Box Britain: Americanisation and Youth Culture, 1945–60 (Manchester, 2009)Google Scholar.

80 “Teen Budget,” Daily Mirror, 12 April 1959, 2.

81 Jackson, Louise A. and Bartie, Angela, “‘Children of the City’: Juvenile Justice, Property, and Place in England and Scotland, 1945–60,” Economic History Review 64, no. 1 (February 2011): 88113CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 97.

82 “And We're Simply TERRIBLE,” Daily Mirror, 12 January 1967, 7.

83 Todd, Selina and Young, Hilary, “‘Baby-boomers’ to ‘Beanstalkers’: Making the Modern Teenager in Post-War Britain,” Cultural and Social History 9, no. 3 (September 2012): 451–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 For an analysis of this process, with reference to the early twentieth-century United States, see Enstad, Nan, Ladies of Labor, Girls of Adventure: Working Women, Popular Culture and Labor Politics (New York, 1999)Google Scholar.

85 Judy Walker (b. 1940), interviewed by Hilary Young (2007).

86 Tiratsoo, Reconstruction, 43.

87 ESDS, SN 6567, Crown Street, 1955–1963.

88 Goss, Shirley, untitled reminiscence in Children of the Streets: The War Years, ed. Green, Mike (Manchester, 1996)Google Scholar.

89 Spencer, Stephanie, “Schoolgirl to Career Girl: The City as Educative Space,” Paedagogica Historica 39, no. 1–2 (January 2003): 121–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 “1,000 Rock ‘n’ Roll Rioters Take City by Storm,” Daily Mirror, 10 September 1956, 5.

91 “Oldham Trusts Its Youngsters,” Manchester Guardian, 15 September 1956, 12.

92 Percy, “Picket Lines and Parades,” 456.

93 Lüdtke, Alf, “People Working: Everyday Life and German Fascism,” History Workshop Journal 50 (Autumn 2000): 7492CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 90.

94 “Serenade to Bill Haley,” Daily Mirror, 11 February 1957, 2.

95 Judy Walker (b. 1940), interviewed by Hilary Young (2007).

96 Lüdtke, “Everyday Life and German Fascism,” 85.

97 Jackson, “‘The Coffee Club Menace’”; Ravetz, Alison, Remaking Cities (London, 1980)Google Scholar.

98 Hall, Peter, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century (Oxford, 2004)Google Scholar; Hanna, Erika, “Dublin's North Inner City, Preservationism, and Irish Modernity in the 1960s,” Historical Journal 53, no. 4 (December 2010): 1015–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

99 Lord Molson, Speech to the House of Lords, 28 November 1962, Parliamentary Debates, Lords, vol. 244 (1962–63), cols. 1208–96.

100 Ortolano, “Planning the Urban Future,” 485.

101 Quoted in Pilger, John, Hidden Agendas (London, 1998), 399Google Scholar.

102 Derived from analysis of ESDS, SN 6586.

103 Pendlebury, John, “Alas Smith and Burns? Conservation in Newcastle upon Tyne City Centre, 1959–1968,” Planning Perspectives 16, no. 2 (April 2001): 115–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Ortolano, “Planning the Urban Future,” 499–501.

104 “The Booming Mirror Salutes the Booming Cities!,” Daily Mirror, 2 January 1967, 1. On the Mirror and its readership, see Bingham, Adrian, Family Newspapers: Sex, Private Life, and the British Popular Press 1918–1978 (Oxford, 2009), 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 8.

105 Gazeley, Ian and Langhamer, Claire, “The Meanings of Happiness in Mass Observation's Bolton,” History Workshop Journal 75, no. 1 (Spring 2013): 159–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106 “Exciting,” Daily Mirror, 1 March 1967, 5.

107 “Jill Wins Boom City Prize,” Daily Mirror, 18 November 1967, 22.

108 “The City That Helps Keep Me Young,” Daily Mirror, 3 April 1967, 6.

109 “We Think and Act,” Daily Mirror, 19 January 1967, 7.

110 “Historic—And So Boring,” Daily Mirror, 10 February 1967, 7.

111 “And We're Simply TERRIBLE.”

112 “Empty Shell,” Daily Mirror, 1 March 1967, 5.

113 “Streets Ahead,” Daily Mirror, 19 January 1967, 7.

114 “A Salute That Wins £25,” Daily Mirror, 20 March 1967, 13.

115 “We're Fabulous,” Daily Mirror, 10 February 1967, 7.

116 “We've More to Shout about Than Tall Policemen,” Daily Mirror, 2 May 1967, 6.

117 “Boom Cities: Swansea,” Daily Mirror, 21 August 1967, 13.

118 “We're the Greatest!” Daily Mirror, 12 January 1967, 7.

119 Jones, Ben, “Slum Clearance, Privatization and Residualization: The Practices and Politics of Council Housing in Mid-Twentieth-Century England,” Twentieth Century British History 21, no. 4 (December 2010): 510–39CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Rogaly and Taylor, Moving Histories of Class and Community, 81–83.

120 Gunn, “British Urban Modernism,” 866–68.

121 “A Salute That Wins £25.”

122 Vanessa Taylor and Frank Trentmann, “Liquid Politics: Water and the Politics of Everyday Life in the Modern City,” Past and Present 211, no. 1 (May 2011): 199–241.