¹ Hansen, Randall, Citizenship and Immigration in Post-war Britain: The Institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation (Oxford, 2000)Google Scholar; Holmes, Colin, John Bull's Island: Immigration and British Society, 1871–1971 (Basingstoke, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Layton-Henry, Zig, The Politics of Immigration: Immigration, “Race” and “Race” Relations in Post-war Britain (Cambridge, MA, 1992)Google Scholar; Panayi, Panikos, Immigration, Ethnicity, and Racism in Britain, 1815–1945 (Manchester, 1994)Google Scholar; and Paul, Kathleen, Whitewashing Britain: Race and Citizenship in the Postwar Era (Ithaca, NY, 1997)Google Scholar.

² I am indebted to Susan Pedersen for this point.

³ Scholarship on British deportation policies is extremely limited. One useful addition is Bloch, Alice and Schuster, Liza, “At the Extremes of Exclusion: Deportation, Detention, and Dispersal,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28, no. 3 (May 2005): 491–512CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ The idea of a “politics of exit” is taken from Nancy Green, although her proposals for a history of exit are focused exclusively on voluntary emigration. Green, Nancy L., “The Politics of Exit: Reversing the Immigration Paradigm,” Journal of Modern History 77, no. 2 (June 2005): 263–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Nancy L. Green and Weil, François, “Introduction,” in their Citizenship and Those Who Leave: The Politics of Emigration and Expatriation (Urbana, IL, 2007), 1–9Google Scholar.

⁵ In some years, the Irish represented up to 72 percent of the total pool of deportees. “Statistics of Deportation,” 1962–72, The National Archives (TNA): Public Record Office (PRO), Home Office (HO) 344/72.

⁶ Paul, Whitewashing Britain, esp. chap. 4.

⁷ Some of the key works in this debate are Curtis, L. Perry, Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Caricature (Washington, DC, 1971)Google Scholar; Gibbons, Luke, Transformations in Irish Culture (Cork, 1996)Google Scholar; Jeffery, Keith, “An Irish Empire”? Aspects of Ireland and the British Empire (Manchester, 1996)Google Scholar; Kiberd, Declan, Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation (London, 1995)Google Scholar; Kearney, Richard, Postnationalist Ireland: Politics, Culture, Philosophy (London, 1997)Google Scholar; Lloyd, David, Anomalous States: Irish Writing and the Post-colonial Moment (Dublin, 1993)Google Scholar. For a useful overview of this vast field of scholarship, see Howe, Stephen, Ireland and Empire: Colonial Legacies in Irish History and Culture (Oxford, 2000)Google Scholar.

⁸ Exceptions included counterterrorist measures, such as the Prevention of Violence Act 1939, which is discussed in a later section of this article.

⁹ See, e.g., Elkins, Caroline, “Race, Citizenship and Governance: Settler Tyranny and the End of Empire,” in Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century: Projects, Practices, Legacies, ed. Elkins, Caroline and Pedersen, Susan (New York, 2005), 203–22Google Scholar.

¹⁰ “Secret Memorandum: Powers of Commonwealth Governments to Deport British Subjects,” 1955, TNA: PRO, Dominions Office (DO) 35/10420.

¹¹ “Deportation from UK and Colonies—Re Powers for Dealing with Subversive Activities,” 1949–50, TNA: PRO, DO 35/4185.

¹² “IRA Outrages: Memorandum for the Home Secretary,” 30 June 1939, TNA: PRO, HO 144/21316.

¹³ “Order Quashed Binding Man Over to Go to Nigeria (Regina v. Ayu),” The Times, 18 November 1958, 3.

¹⁴ H. Lintott to Sir A. Clutterbuck, 11 January 1960, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

¹⁵ “Binding Over British Subjects to Leave the U.K.,” 3 November 1958, TNA: PRO, HO 344/162; “How to Return Erring Irish to Ireland,” The Times, 31 July 1958.

¹⁶ The widely held assumption that the riots were instigated by Teddy Boys, popularly imagined as antisocial, working-class adolescent thugs garbed in drainpipe trousers and ducktails, is difficult to substantiate. As Edward Pilkington notes, the majority of the rioters were indeed teenagers—60 percent of those arrested were under twenty years old—but they appeared to act with the tacit approval of their parents. Pilkington, Edward, Beyond the Mother Country: West Indians and the Notting Hill White Riots (London, 1988), 129Google Scholar; see also Alice Ritscherle, “Opting Out of Utopia: Race and Working-Class Political Culture during the Era of Decolonization” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2005), chap. 3.

¹⁷ Ritscherle, “Opting Out of Utopia.”

¹⁸ Pilkington, Beyond the Mother Country, 137.

¹⁹ The notion that white violence originated in black misbehavior also surfaced in the Rillington Place murders: the serial killings of six women by a white Englishman, John Christie, in north Kensington in 1953. Christie's defense team claimed that the antisocial behavior of Jamaican immigrants in the neighborhood had overburdened Christie's unstable psyche and that the pressures exerted by Christie's confrontation with an unfamiliar culture had catapulted him toward deadly violence. Frank Mort, “Scandalous Events: Metropolitan Culture and Moral Change in Post–Second World War London,” Representations 93 (Winter 2006): 106–37.

²⁰ Rowe, Michael, The Racialisation of Disorder in Twentieth-Century Britain (Aldershot, 1998), 123Google Scholar.

²¹ Pilkington, Beyond the Mother Country, 146.

²² “Statistics of Coloured Persons Convicted of Certain Offences: Consideration of Question Whether Statistics of Crime amongst Immigrants Should be Collected,” 1961, TNA: PRO, HO 344/160.

²³ Hampshire, James, Citizenship and Belonging: Immigration and the Politics of Demographic Governance in Postwar Britain (Houndmills, 2005), 129CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also MacInnes, Colin, “A Short Guide for Jumbles (to the Life of Their Coloured Brethren in England),” in his England, Half-English (London, 1961), 25–26Google Scholar.

²⁴ W. N. Hyde to John Mackay, 26 March 1964, TNA: PRO, HO 344/258; Mackay to Hyde, 3 April 1964, TNA: PRO, HO 344/258.

²⁵ Deputy Chief Constable, Birmingham, to Miss G. N. B. Owen, 18 August 1961, TNA: PRO, HO 344/160.

²⁶ Hampshire, Citizenship and Belonging, 129.

²⁷ Glasgow Herald, 30 October 1958. This was not the first time that race riots had led to calls for expelling Britain's black population. After the race riots of 1919, the Home Office, the Colonial Office, and the Ministry of Labour coordinated a series of largely unsuccessful repatriation schemes for black residents in Britain's port cities. Few individuals responded, as the resettlement payment was inadequate and white wives and children were initially barred from accompanying the returnees. Even after a subsequent provision allowed white wives to join their repatriated husbands, the Colonial Office feared that mixed-race families might damage white prestige in colonial locales and expended considerable energy in trying to convince these women to stay in Britain. Jacqueline Jenkinson, “The Black Community of Salford and Hull,” Immigrants and Minorities 7, no. 2 (July 1988): 166–83; Michael Rowe, “Sex, ‘Race’ and Riot in Liverpool, 1919,” Immigrants and Minorities 19, no. 2 (July 2000): 53–70.

²⁸ “Organized Vice: Deportation Proposal Inadvisable,” The Times, 22 November 1957, 3.

²⁹ “Call to Check Immorality: Deportation Move Defeated,” The Times, 9 April 1959, 9.

³⁰ The mention of flick-knives (switchblades) is interesting in this context, as many of the Teddy Boys had been armed with such weapons in the 1958 riots. “Colonial and Commonwealth Prisoners: Deportation Bill,” 14 August 1961, TNA: PRO, HO 291/984.

³¹ M. F. Dei-Anang to A. W. Snelling, 9 November 1959, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

³² J. D. B. Shaw to Sir Charles Dixon, 5 February 1960, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997; J. M. Ross to Dixon, 29 February 1960, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

³³ “A Family of Nations,” The Times, 4 September 1958, 11.

³⁴ “Crime and the Immigrant,” 1964, TNA: PRO, HO 344/258.

³⁵ H. Lintott to Sir A. Clutterbuck, 11 January 1960, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

³⁶ J. M. Ross to G. W. St. J. Chadwick, 5 November 1959, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

³⁷ “West Indian Influx,” The Times, 2 December 1960, 15.

³⁸ J. Chadwick to Lintott, 8 January 1960, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

³⁹ A. Townsend, “Confidential: Bill for Deportation of British Subjects,” 1958? TNA: PRO, Metropolitan Police Office (MEPO) 2/9773.

⁴⁰ W. N. Hyde, “Deportation,” 7 September 1961, TNA: PRO, HO 291/984.

⁴¹ H. Lintott to Sir A. Clutterbuck, 11 January 1960, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

⁴² “House of Lords: Deportation Powers Soon,” The Times, 21 March 1962, 16.

⁴³ Daily Telegraph, 14 June 1962; The Times, 21 July 1962. See also Institute of Race Relations Newsletter (July 1962), 6; “Magistrate's Comment on Irishman,” and “Irishmen Named for Deportation,” both in The Times, 25 June 1962, 6.

⁴⁴ “Richard Anthony Sargent,” n.d., TNA: PRO, HO 344/38.

⁴⁵ “Miss Carmen Bryan: Timetable of Events,” 1962? TNA: PRO, HO 344/38.

⁴⁶ E. G. Norris to L. J. D. Wakely, 23 July 1962, TNA: PRO, DO 175/90.

⁴⁷ R. F. Wood, “Carmen Bryan,” 5 July 1962, TNA: PRO, HO 344/38.

⁴⁸ “Deportation under Part II of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act,” 17 July 1962, TNA: PRO, HO 344/38.

⁴⁹ R. F. Wood, “Carmen Bryan,” 5 July 1962, TNA: PRO, HO 344/38.

⁵⁰ On West Indian female migrants to Britain, see Chamberlain, Mary, Family Love in the Diaspora: Migration and the Anglo-Caribbean Experience (New Brunswick, NJ, 2006)Google Scholar; Foner, Nancy, “Male and Female: Jamaican Migrants in London,” Anthropological Quarterly 49, no. 1 (January 1976): 28–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Goulbourne, Harry and Chamberlain, Mary, eds., Caribbean Families in Britain and the Trans-Atlantic World (London, 2001)Google Scholar.

⁵¹ “Jamaican Girl Not to Be Deported,” The Times, 24 July 1962, 10; Guardian, 24 July 1962.

⁵² Guardian, 20 July 1962.

⁵³ “Deportation Cancelled,” The Times, 24 July 1962, 14.

⁵⁴ The People, 2 February 1963.

⁵⁵ “Still on Trial,” The Times, 15 November 1962, 13. See also Daily Herald, 21 July 1962; Daily Telegraph, 23 July 1962; K. B. Paice, “Carmen Bryan,” 6 July 1962, TNA: PRO, HO 344/38; and R. F. Wood to K. B. Paice, 23 July 1962, TNA: PRO, HO 344/38.

⁵⁶ New Statesman, 16 November 1962.

⁵⁷ Cedric Thornberry, “A Note on the Legal Position of Commonwealth Immigrants and the White Paper Proposals,” Race 7 (October 1965): 177–84. Daily Telegraph, 28 August 1962; Daily Mail, 26 September 1962. On West Indians and Africans who asked to be deported in the early days of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act, see Daily Mail, 26 September 1962; Daily Telegraph, 28 August 1962; and “Nigerian's 15 1/2 Years in Prison,” The Times, 11 August 1962, 4.

⁵⁸ “Still on Trial,” The Times, 15 November 1962, 13.

⁵⁹ Sir Charles Cunningham to Sir Reginald Manningham-Buller, 14 November 1958, TNA: PRO, HO 344/162.

⁶⁰ Leonard M. Tomlinson, “Report on the Carmen Bryan Case,” 30 July 1962, TNA: PRO, HO 344/38. On the role of magistrates in deportation cases, see also Daily Herald, 21 July 1962; “No Object in Your Staying in Britain,” The Times, 3 August 1962, 5; “‘Dangerous Man’ Drew Knife,” The Times, 17 August 1962, 5; and the entire file, “Magistrates’ Recommendation in Deportation: Role in Immigration Control,” 1966–72, TNA: PRO, HO 344/93.

⁶¹ Russell, Matthew, “The Irish Delinquent in England,” Studies 53 (1964): 136–48Google Scholar.

⁶² Quoted in ibid., 145.

⁶³ “Deportation of Immigrants: Who Should Make Decisions?” The Times, 15 August 1962, 11. On the unevenness of magistrates’ decisions, see Houlbrook, Matt, Queer London: Perils and Pleasures in the Sexual Metropolis, 1918–1957 (Chicago, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Eric Fletcher, the Labour MP, referred to this situation as a judiciary left in ignorance of the wishes of the executive. “Deportation of Immigrants: Assurances Given to Parliament,” The Times, 17 August 1962, 9.

⁶⁵ Colin Rickards, “How the Migrant Deportation Act Is Working,” Daily Gleaner, 7 February 1963; see also “Principles for Home Secretary in Deportation Decisions,” The Times, 15 November 1962, 6.

⁶⁶ Birmingham Post, 14 March 1963.

⁶⁷ Rickards, “Migrant Deportation Act.”

⁶⁸ Daily Herald, 21 July 1962.

⁶⁹ Ngai, Mae M., Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ, 2004), 1–2Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ “R v. Rapier,” Criminal Law Review 212 (1963); see also “Deportation Decisions Set Aside,” The Times, 16 January 1963, 6.

⁷¹ Mort, “Scandalous Events,” 128. See also Waters, Chris, “‘Dark Strangers’ in Our Midst: Discourses of Race and Nation in Britain, 1947–1963,” Journal of British Studies 36, no. 2 (April 1997): 207–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷² Such considerations had formed the justification for special judicial treatment of aliens in earlier periods. Karen Macfarlane, “The Special Jury for Foreigners in 18th-Century London,” paper delivered at the Pacific Coast Conference on British Studies (Tacoma, WA, 2007); and Wiener, Martin J., “Homicide and ‘Englishness’: Criminal Justice and National Identity in Victorian England,” National Identities 6, no. 3 (2004): 203–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷³ “Minutes of the 78th Central Conference of Chief Constables: Deportation of British Immigrants,” 12 November 1958, TNA: PRO, MEPO 2/9773; Home Office Circular no. 81/1962, “Commonwealth Immigrants Act, 1962,” n.d., TNA: PRO, HO 213/1713.

⁷⁴ Chief constables acknowledged to the Home Office that many defendants—presumably those who were white and spoke unaccented English—might proceed through the courts without anyone knowing that they had been born elsewhere. “Minutes of the 78th Central Conference of Chief Constables: Deportation of British Immigrants,” 12 November 1958, TNA: PRO, MEPO 2/9773.

⁷⁵ “Commonwealth Immigrants,” 22 August 1961, TNA: PRO, HO 291/984.

⁷⁶ Daily Mirror, 23 July 1962. See also Derrick Sington, “The Policeman and the Immigrant,” New Society (24 February 1966): 13–15.

⁷⁷ Theobald Matthew to J. M. Ross, 6 November 1958, TNA: PRO, HO 344/162.

⁷⁸ S. J. Hobson, “Bill for Deportation of British Subjects,” 4 November 1958, TNA: PRO, MEPO 2/9773.

⁷⁹ On the policing of interracial sex in the postwar metropole, see Schwarz, Bill, “Black Metropolis, White England,” in Modern Times: Reflections on a Century of English Modernity, ed. Mica Nava and Alan O’Shea (London, 1996), 175–207Google Scholar. See also Collins, Marcus, “Pride and Prejudice: West Indian Men and Racial Prejudice in Mid-Twentieth-Century Britain,” Journal of British Studies 40, no. 3 (July 2001): 391–418CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ritscherle, “Opting Out of Utopia”; Waters, “Dark Strangers”; and Wendy Webster, Englishness and Empire, 1939–1965 (Oxford, 2005).

⁸⁰ “Immigration Control a Distasteful Duty,” The Times, 13 March 1962, 16.

⁸¹ Cedric Thornberry, “Law, Opinion and the Immigrant,” Modern Law Review (1962): 654–71.

⁸² C. T. H. Morris, “Special Remission of Sentence for Prisoners to Be Deported,” 2 May 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

⁸³ For a fictional treatment of these issues, see Jones, Mervyn, A Set of Wives (London, 1965)Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ George Mikes, “Address to Labour Lawyers,” 28 November 1963, box 1, file 4, Society of Labour Lawyers Papers, London School of Economics Archives, London.

⁸⁵ Sir Charles Cunningham to Sir Reginald Manningham-Buller, 14 November 1958, TNA: PRO, HO 344/162. See also Manningham-Buller's reply in “Colonial Immigrants,” 27 November 1958, TNA: PRO, Lord Chancellor's Office (LCO) 2/6957.

⁸⁶ Royle was cochairman of the British Caribbean Association, an all-party organization of MPs to combat racial prejudice, and was himself a magistrate. Rickards, “Migrant Deportation Act”; and see also L. M. Tomlinson, “Report on the Carmen Bryan Case,” 30 July 1962, TNA: PRO, HO 344/38.

⁸⁷ “Deportation of Commonwealth Citizens under the Commonwealth Immigrants Act,” 1962–63, TNA: PRO, DO 175/90.

⁸⁸ Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 108–10.

⁸⁹ Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration, 117. On the consequences of this exclusion for the invisibility of the Irish as an ethnic minority group within Britain, see Mary J. Hickman, “Reconstructing Deconstructing ‘Race’: British Political Discourses about the Irish in Britain,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 21, no. 2 (March 1998): 288–307.

⁹⁰ The Times, 17 November and 4 December 1961.

⁹¹ R. F. Wood, “Deportations to Ireland—General Policy,” 13 March 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/74.

⁹² “Deportation of Commonwealth Citizens under the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962,” 19 April 1963, TNA: PRO, DO 175/90.

⁹³ See “Statistics of Deportation,” 1962–72, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

⁹⁴ Compare, for example, the treatment of an Irish deportee, Edward McCord, and Carmen Bryan in Daily Herald, 21 July 1962.

⁹⁵ “Deportation to Ireland—General Policy,” 28 June 1966, TNA: PRO, HO 344/74.

⁹⁶ Central Police Office to R. F. Wood, 21 November 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/74.

⁹⁷ “Man Deported Five Times,” The Times, 31 December 1969, 2.

⁹⁸ “Deportation to Ireland—General Policy,” 14 March 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/74.

⁹⁹ K. P. Paice, “Minutes,” 22 March 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/74.

¹⁰⁰ “Revision of Background Note on Deportation,” 8 August 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

¹⁰¹ “Memorandum on Returning Irish Deportees,” n.d., TNA: PRO, HO 344/74.

¹⁰² A. E. Bottoms, “Delinquency amongst Immigrants,” Race 8 (April 1967): 357–83; McClintock, F. H., Crimes of Violence (London, 1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and T. E. St. Johnston, County Police HQ, Lancashire to R. F. Wood, 14 November 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/74.

¹⁰³ R. F. Wood to Morris, 2 October 1963, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

¹⁰⁴ Garrett, Paul Michael, “The Hidden History of the PFIs: The Repatriation of Unmarried Mothers and Their Children from England to Ireland in the 1950s and 1960s,” Immigrants and Minorities 19, no. 3 (November 2000): 25–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar, “The Abnormal Flight: The Migration and Repatriation of Irish Unmarried Mothers,” Social History 25, no. 3 (October 2000): 330–44, “'No Irish Need Apply’: Social Work in Britain and the History and Politics of Exclusionary Paradigms and Practices,” British Journal of Social Work 32, no. 4 (June 2002): 477–94, and “The ‘Daring Experiment’: The London County Council and the Discharge from Care of Children to Ireland in the 1950s and 1960s,” Journal of Social Policy 32, no. 1 (January 2003): 1–18.

¹⁰⁵ Bottoms, “Delinquency amongst Immigrants.”

¹⁰⁶ See also Gibbens, T. C. N. and Ahrenfeldt, R. H., eds., Cultural Factors in Delinquency (London, 1966)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ McClintock, Crimes of Violence, 126.

¹⁰⁸ On the mass deportations of IRA suspects from England in the 1920s, see Michael Hassett, “The British Government's Response to Irish Terrorism, c. 1867–c. 1979” (PhD diss., Open University, 2007).

¹⁰⁹ Donohue, Laura K., Counter-terrorist Law and Emergency Powers in the United Kingdom, 1922–2000 (Dublin, 2001)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁰ “Prevention of Violence (Temporary Provisions) Bill,” 1939, TNA: PRO, HO 144/21316.

¹¹¹ Donohue, Counter-terrorist Law, 208–9.

¹¹² Because Irish entrants to Britain in 1939 were supposed to register with the police, and were unable to obtain ration books without this registration, it was difficult (though not impossible) for them to evade detection at that time. Hassett, “British Government's Response to Irish Terrorism.”

¹¹³ “James Pierce McGuiness,” 1939, TNA: PRO, HO 144/22146.

¹¹⁴ Brendan Behan's deportation is described briefly at the end of his Borstal Boy (New York, 1959).

¹¹⁵ Holmes, Colin, “The British Government and Brendan Behan, 1941–1954: The Persistence of the Prevention of Violence Act,” Saothar 14 (1989): 125–28Google Scholar.

¹¹⁶ “The First Irish Deportees,” The Times, 31 July 1939, 12.

¹¹⁷ Delaney, Enda, “'Almost a Class of Helots in an Alien Land’: The British State and Irish Immigration, 1921–1945,” Immigrants and Minorities 18, nos. 2/3 (July/November 1999): 240–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁸ “Copy of Report by the Secretary of State as to the Expulsion, Registration, and Prohibition Orders Made under the Act,” 1939–54, Prevention of Violence (Temporary Provisions) Act 1939 papers, House of Lords Record Office, London.

¹¹⁹ The act would likely have been dropped in 1953 but was kept alive that year because of security concerns pertaining to the Coronation. “House of Commons: Restraining Terrorist Activities,” The Times, 3 December 1952, 2.

¹²⁰ The act was formally repealed in 1973.

¹²¹ “Question of the Inclusion of the Prevention of Violence (Temporary Provisions) Act 1939: Expiring Laws Continuance Bill, 1954,” TNA: PRO, HO 45/25530.

¹²² “Armed Raid on Barracks,” The Times, 18 October 1954, 6.

¹²³ “No Arms Taken to Eire,” The Times, 14 June 1954, 6.

¹²⁴ “Power Restored to N. Ireland Police,” The Times, 18 June 1954, 3.

¹²⁵ “Armed Raid on Barracks,” The Times, 18 October 1954, 6; and “Eight Men Sentenced for Barracks Raid,” 16 December 1954, 5.

¹²⁶ F. A. K. Harrison to L. B. Walsh-Atkins, 14 January 1956, TNA: PRO, HO 45/25530.

¹²⁷ “Immigration Bill: Deportation of Irish Citizens,” 8 February 1971, TNA: PRO, HO 394/5.

¹²⁸ See, e.g., F. A. K. Harrison to Le Tocq, Commonwealth Relations Office, 3 January 1956, TNA: PRO, HO 45/25530.

¹²⁹ “The Expiring Laws Continuance Bill,” 22 October 1952, TNA: PRO, HO 45/25530.

¹³⁰ Article 9 also forbade arbitrary arrest and detention. The full text of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is available at http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html.

¹³¹ J. M. Ross to A. W. Snelling, 31 October 1958, TNA: PRO, DO 35/7997.

¹³² Bottoms, “Delinquency amongst Immigrants”; Russell, “Irish Delinquent.”

¹³³ Samuel Hoare, “IRA Outrages: Memorandum by the Home Secretary,” 30 June 1939, TNA: PRO, HO 144/21316.

¹³⁴ Hillyard, Paddy, “Irish People and the British Criminal Justice System,” Journal of Law and Society 21, no. 1 (March 1994): 39–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³⁵ “Deportation of Commonwealth Citizens under the Commonwealth Immigrants Act,” 1962–63, TNA: PRO, DO 175/90.

¹³⁶ Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 109. This concern about the permeability of the border between Britain and Ireland recurred in counterterrorist laws throughout the 1970s, as Britain was generally unwilling to curtail movement across this border. See, e.g., the case of Michael Doran, an unemployed Irish citizen who faced his third deportation in 1971. The Marylebone magistrate, David Wacher, stated that Doran seemed “to make a mockery of deportation.” Regarding the problem of returned Irish deportees, the Home Office admitted in 1972 that “we have found no acceptable solution to this problem.” “Call for Stricter Check on Entry from Eire,” The Times, 25 August 1971, 4; and “Revision of Background Note on Deportation,” 1972, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

¹³⁷ “Statistics of Deportation,” 1963–71, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

¹³⁸ “Deportation without the Recommendation of a Court,” 1965? TNA: PRO, HO 344/79.

¹³⁹ “Revision of Background Note on Deportation,” 1972, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

¹⁴⁰ At this point, the Home Secretary was also empowered to expel the deportee's dependents in order to prevent the family from becoming a charge on public funds. “Single System for Control of Entry to Britain,” The Times, 25 February 1971, 4.

¹⁴¹ “Statistics of Deportation,” 1963–71, TNA: PRO, HO 344/72.

¹⁴² Bloch and Schuster, “At the Extremes of Exclusion.”

¹⁴³ “Minutes of Evidence Taken before the Committee on Race Relations and Immigration,” 12 December 1968, TNA: PRO, HO 376/159.

¹⁴⁴ In the first year of the 1988 Immigrants Act, the official deportation figures rose by 50 percent. “Tough Deportation Regime for Immigrants Angers Lawyers,” New Law Journal 139 (12 May 1989): 634–35.

¹⁴⁵ “Unobjectionable,” that is, only according to the Home Office's own perspective. Antiracist organizations also mobilized in the 1980s around opposition to deportation. The West Midlands Anti-Deportation Campaign and the Hackney Anti-Deportation Campaign, for example, both organized around high-profile deportation cases as a way of protesting Tory immigrant laws—a recoupling of the politics of entry and exit.