Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T04:35:19.710Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The State, Modernity, and the Fate of Liberalism in Prewar Japan

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2011

Germaine A. Hoston
Get access

Extract

The Political Histories of Western Europe and the United States over the past three hundred years illustrate powerfully how the evolution of fully functioning liberal democratic politics has been linked intimately to the presence of vigorous thinkers and activists dedicated to the pursuit of a liberal polity. The social contract theory of John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the constitutionalism of Baron Charles de Montesquieu, the laissez-faire economics of Adam Smith, and the reflections of Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton on the challenges of competitive politics all helped to lay the groundwork for the achievement of liberal democratic politics in France, England, and the United States. Particular strains of political thought found in these and other thinkers help to account for the similarities and differences among the world's historic experiments in bourgeois democracy. French liberalism, which had no Thomas Hobbes seeking eloquently to defend monarchical absolutism, ultimately could not accommodate royal prerogative to democratic politics; and, lacking an Adam Smith to assert the primacy of economic laissez-faire, it showed no fundamental antipathy to the centralized state in its political practice. A more dramatic contrast is afforded by the fragile and short-lived democracy of Weimar Germany, nurtured in soil where G. W. F. Hegel's organic conception of the state and the doctrines of state sovereignty that legitimated the regime of Otto von Bismarck overwhelmed the contributions of Immanuel Kant and Wilhelm von Humboldt to liberal theory. In the final analysis, to be sure, the presence or absence of absolutism and its defenders, of laissez-faire economics and its rationalizers is attributable to other factors deep in the history and culture of each society. Yet, in all these cases, the historical relationship between thought and politics is clear and striking.

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 51 , Issue 2 , May 1992 , pp. 287 - 316
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Apter, David E. 1965. The Politics of Modernization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Arblaster, Anthony. 1984. The Rise and Decline of Western Liberalism. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Arima, Tatsuo. 1969. The Failure of Freedom: A Portrait of Modern Japanese Intellectuals. Harvard East Asian Series, no. 39. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbu, Zevedei. 1960. Problems of Historical Psychology. New York: Grove Press.Google Scholar
Bailey, Jackson H. 1961. “Prince Saionji and the Popular Rights Movement of the 1880's.” Journal of Asian Studies 21 (November 196l):49–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barshay, Andrew E. 1988. State and Intellectual in Imperial Japan: The Public Man in Crisis. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendix, Reinhard. 1967. “Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 9, no. 3 (April 1967):292–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benn, Stanley, and William, Weinstein. 1971. “Being Free to Act, and Being a Free Man.” Mind (April 1971): 194–211.Google Scholar
Berlin, Isaiah. 1958. Two Concepts of Liberty. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Bernal, Martin. 1976. Chinese Socialism to 1907. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Bowen, Roger W. 1980. Rebellion and Democracy in Meiji Japan: A Study of Commoners in the Popular Rights Movement. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Paul A. 1985a. “The Quest for Liberalism in the Chinese Past: Stepping Stone to a Cosmopolitan World or the Last Stand of Western Parochialism?” A Review of The Liberal Tradition in China, by Wm. Theodore de Bary (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983). In Philosophy East and West 35, no. 3 (July 1985):305–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Paul A.. 1985b. “A Reply to Professor Wm. Theodore de Bary.” Philosophy East and West 35, no. 4 (October 1985):413–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collini, Stefan. 1979. Liberalism and Sociology: L. T. Hobhouse and Liberal Argument in England, 1880–1914. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Connolly, William E. 1983. The Terms of Political Discourse. Princeton University Press, 1974. 2nd edition.Google Scholar
Connolly, William E.. 1988. Political Theory and Modernity. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Craig, Albert M. 1968. “Fukuzawa Yukichi: The Philosophical Foundations of Meiji Nationalism.” In Ward, Robert E., ed., Political Development in Modern Japan, pp. 99–148. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
De Bary, Wm. Theodore. 1983. The Liberal Tradition in China. Neo-Confucian Studies. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press; New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Bary, Wm. Theodore. 1985. “Confucian Liberalism and Western Parochialism: A Response to Paul A. Cohen.” Philosophy East and West 35, no. 4 (October 1985):399–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duus, Peter. 1968. Party Rivalry and Political Change in Taishō Japan. Harvard East Asian Series, no. 35. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duus, Peter.. 1978. “Yoshino Sakuzō: The Christian as Political Critic.” Journal of Japanese Studies 4: 301–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duus, Peter.. 1982. “Liberal Intellectuals and Social Conflict in Taishō Japan.” In Najita, Tetsuo and Koschmann, J. Victor, eds., Conflict in Modern Japanese History: The Neglected Tradition. Princeton: N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Fincher, John. 1968. “Political Provincialism and the National Revolution.” In Wright, Mary Clabaugh, ed., China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900–1913, pp. 185–226. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fujita, Shōzō. 1975. Tenkō no shisō shi-teki kenkyū—sono ichi sokumen [The intellectual historical study of tenkō: one aspect]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Yukichi. 1926a. “Bunmeiron no gaityaku maki no ichi” [An outline of the theory of civilization]. In Fukuzawa zenshū [Complete writings of Fukuzawa (Yukichi)], vol. IV:1–53. Tokyo: Kokumin Tosho.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Yukichi. 1926b. “Gakumon no susume” [The advancement of learning] (1872). In Fukuzawa zenshū [Complete writings of Fukuzawa (Yukichi)], vol. 111:1–147. Tokyo: Kokumin Tosho.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Yukichi.. 1926c. “Jiji shōgen” [A few words on current events]. In Fukuzawa zenshū [Complete writings of Fukuzawa (Yukichi)], vol. V:243–410. Tokyo: Kokumin Tosho.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Yukichi.. 1926d. “Seiyō jijō hoka hen” [On matters in the West and other things]. In Fukuzawa zenshū [Complete writings of Fukuzawa (Yukichi)], vol. 1: 419–538.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Yukichi.. 1926e. “Sonnō ron” [On revering the emperor] (1888). In Fukuzawa zenshū [Complete writings of Fukuzawa (Yukichi)], vol. VI:237–68. Tokyo: Kokumin Tosho.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Yukichi.. 1926f. “Teishitsu ron” [On the imperial household] (1881). In Fukuzawa zenshū [Complete writings of Fukuzawa (Yukichi)], vol. V:437–80. Tokyo: Kokumin Tosho.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Yukichi.. 1959. “Heiron” [On warfare]. In Fukuzawa zenshū [Complete writings of Fukuzawa (Yukichi)], vol. V:297–348. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Fung, Yu-Lan. 1952. A History of Chinese Philosophy, trans. Bodde, Derk. Vol. I: The Period of the Philosophers (From the Beginnings to Circa 100 B.C.) Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gluck, Carol. 1985. Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period. Princeton: N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Andrew. 1985. The Evolution of Labor Relations in Japan: Heavy Industry, 1853–1955. Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Gordon, Andrew.. 1991. Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gramsci, Antonio. 1971. Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. Ed. and trans. Hoare, Quintin, and Smith, Geoffrey Nowell. New York: International Publishers.Google Scholar
Hamaguchi, Esyun. 1985. “A Contextual Model of the Japanese: Toward a Methodological Innovation in Japan Studies.” Journal of Japanese Studies 11, no. 2 (Summer 1985):289–321.Google Scholar
Havens, Thomas R. H. 1968a. “Comte, Mill, and the Thought of Nishi Amane in Meiji Japan.” Journal of Asian Studies 27 (February 1968):217–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havens, Thomas R. H. 1968b. “Scholars and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Japan: The Case of Nishi Amane.” Modern Asian Studies 2, no. 4 (October 1968):315–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirai, Atsuko. 1986. Individualism and Socialism: Kawai Eijiro's Life and Thought (1891–1944). Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Hirano, Yoshitarō. 1960. Ōi Kentarō. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan.Google Scholar
“Hoi.” 1974. In Ueki Emori, Ueki Emori senshū [Selected writings of Ueki Emori], ed. Saburō, Ienaga. pp. 303–5. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Holmes, Stephen. 1988. “The Community Trap: The Philosophers' War on the L-Word.” The New Republic 199–22 (November 28, 1988):24–28.Google Scholar
Hoston, Germaine A. 1983. “Tenkō: Marxism and the National Question in Prewar Japan.” Polity 16.1 (Fall 1983):96–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoston, Germaine A.. 1984a. “Marxism and Japanese Expansionism: Takahashi Kamekichi and the Theory of ‘Petty Imperialism.’” Journal of Japanese Studies, 10, no. 1 (January 1984): 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoston, Germaine A.. 1984b. “Marxism and National Socialism in Taishō Japan: The Thought of Takabatake Motoyuki.” Journal of Asian Studies AA, no. 1 (November 1984): 43–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoston, Germaine A.. 1985. “Emperor, Nation, and the Transformation of Marxism to National Socialism in Prewar Japan: The Case of Sano Manabu.” Studies in Comparative Communism 18, no. 1 (Spring 1985):25–47.Google Scholar
Hoston, Germaine A.. 1986. Marxism and the Crisis of Development in Prewar Japan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hoston, Germaine A.. 1990. “Ikkoku Shakai-shugi: Sano Manabu and the Limits of Marxism as Cultural Criticism.” In J. Rimer, Thomas, ed., Culture and Identity; Japanese Intellectuals during the Interwar Years, pp. 168–86. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ichiko, Chūzō. 1968. “The Role of the Gentry: An Hypothesis.” In Wright, Mary Clabaugh, ed., China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900–1913, pp. 297–313. Néw Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Ienaga, Saburō. 1974. “Kaisetsu” [Commentary]. In Ueki Emori, Ueki Emori senshū [Selected writings of Ueki Emori], pp. 307–22. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Ienaga, Saburō.. 1976. Kakumei shisō no senkusha: Ueki. Emori no hito to shisō [Pioneer of revolutionary thought: Ueki Emori, the man and his thought]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1955.Google Scholar
Ishibashi, Tanzan. 1970–1973a. Ishibashi Tanzan zenshū. 15 vols. Tokyo: Tōyō Keizai Shinpō.Google Scholar
Ishibashi, Tanzan.. 1970–1973b. “Jin' chūshin no sangyō kakumei” (1916) [A “humanistic” industrial revolution]. Ishibashi 1970–73a:II, 289–310.Google Scholar
Ishibashi, Tanzan.. 1970–1973c. “Nisshi shin jōyaku no kachi ika” (1915). [What is the value of the new Sino-Japanese treaty?] In Ishibashi 1970–73a:I, 411–15.Google Scholar
Ishibashi, Tanzan.. 1970–1973d. “Rōdō jikan tanshuku no jikken” (1920) [The experiment in the reduction of working hours]. In Ishibashi 1970–73a:III, 391–94.Google Scholar
Ishibashi, Tanzan.. 1970–1973e. “Rōdō sōgi no bōshi hō to kaiketsuhō” (1920) [A law for the curtailment and a law for the resolution of labor disputes]. In Ishibashi 1970–73a:III, 403–13.Google Scholar
Ishibashi, Tanzan.. 1970–1973f. “Sekai-teki daisuki keiki kuru ka dai konrai kuru ka” (1921) [Is a propitious world situation coming, or is chaos coming?]. In Ishibashi 1970–73a:IV, 188–200.Google Scholar
Ishida, Takeshi. 1954. Meiji seiji shisō shi kenkyū [Studies in the history of Meiji political thought]. Tokyo: Mirai-sha.Google Scholar
Iwano, Hōmei. 1922. “Shin shizen-shugi” [The new naturalism]. In Hōmei zenshū [Complete writings of (Iwano) Hōmei], 18 vols., vol. XV: 115–400. Tokyo: Kokumin Tosho.Google Scholar
Karpovich, Michael. 1955. “Two Types of Russian Liberalism: Maklakov and Miliukov.” In Simmons, Ernest J., ed., Continuity and Change in Russian and Soviet Thought, pp. 129–43. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katō, Hiroyuki. 1927. “Shinsei tai'i” [Outline of true government]. In Meiji bunka zenshū [Complete writings of Meiji culture], 24 vols., vol. V: 85–108.Google Scholar
Kato, Shūichi. 1974. “Taishō Democracy as the Pre-Stage for Japanese Militarism.” In Silberman, Bernard S. and Harootunian, H. D., eds., Japan in Crisis, pp. 217–36. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kawai, Eijirō. 1928. “Jiyū-shugi” [Liberalism]. In Shakai keizai taikei [Outline on society and economics], 20 vols., vol. XX: 107–212. Tokyo: Nihon Hyōron-sha.Google Scholar
Kawai, Eijirō.. 1930. Tomasu Hiru Gurin no shisō taikei [The philosophical system of Thomas Hill Green]. 2 vols. [Tokyo:] Nihon Hyōron-sha.Google Scholar
Kawai, Eijirō.. 1933. “Jiyu-shugi no saikentō” [A re-examination of liberalism]. Kaizō [Reconstruction] 9 (October 1933):38–59.Google Scholar
Lerner, Daniel. 1958. The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
MacPherson, C. B. 1964. The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke. Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press, 1962. Paperback ed.Google Scholar
Malia, Martin. 1961. “What Is the Intelligentsia?” In Pipes, Richard, ed., The Russian Intelligentsia, pp. 1–18. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Maruyama, Masao. 1976a. “Kuga Katsunan: hito to shisō” [Kuga Katsunan: the man and his thought] (1947). In Maruyama Masao, Senchū to sengo no aida, 1936–1957 [Between wartime and postwar, 1936–1957], pp. 281–96. Tokyo: Misuzu Shobō.Google Scholar
Maruyama, Masao.. 1976b. “Meiji kokka no shisō” [The thought of the Meiji state] (1946). In Maruyama Masao, Senchū to sengo no aida, 1936–1957 [Between wartime and postwar, 1936–1957], pp. 202–50. Tokyo: Misuzu Shobō.Google Scholar
Marx, Karl.. 1972a. “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right: Introduction.” In Tucker, Robert C., ed., The Marx-Engels Reader, pp. 11–23. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc.Google Scholar
Marx, Karl.. 1972b. “The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.” In Tucker, Robert C., ed. The Marx-Engels Reader, pp. 436–525. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, Sannosuke. 1978. “The Idea of Heaven: A Tokugawa Foundation for Natural Rights Theory.” In Najita, Tetsuo and Scheiner, Irwin, eds., Japanese Political Thought in the Tokugawa Period, pp. 181–99. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Matsuo, Takayoshi. 1984. “Kaisetsu” [Commentary]. In Matsuo Takayoshi, comp., Ishibashi Tanzan hyōron shū [Collected essays of Ishibashi Tanzan], pp. 293–313. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Michels, Robert. 1915. Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy. New York: Hearst's International Library Co.Google Scholar
Minichiello, Sharon. 1984. Retreat from Reform: Patterns of Political Behavior in Interwar Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minobe, Tatsukichi. 1912. Kenpō kōwa [Lectures on the constitution}. Tokyo: Yūhikaku.Google Scholar
Minobe, Tatsukichi.. 1927. Chikujō kenpō seigi [A detailed commentary on the constitution article by article]. Tokyo: Yūhikaku.Google Scholar
Miyagawa, Tōru. 1959. “Nihon no keimō shisō” {Japanese enlightenment thought]. In Masashi, Kaneko and Hisao, Ōtsaka, eds. Kōza kindai shisō [Symposium: modern thought], vol. 9: Nihon ni okeru seiyō kindai shisō no jūyō [The reception of modern Western thought in Japan], pp. 113–47. Tokyo: Kobundo.Google Scholar
Najita, Tetsuo. 1974. “Some Reflections on Idealism in the Political Thought of Yoshino Sakuzō.” In Silberman, Bernard S. and Harootunian, H. D., eds., Japan in Crisis: Essays on Taishō Democracy, pp. 29–66. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Nanbara, Shigeru. 1934a. Fichte ni okeru kokumin-sbugi no riron [The theory of nationalism in Fichte]. Tokyo: Yūhikaku.Google Scholar
Nanbara, Shigeru.. 1934b. Fichte ni okeru kokumin-shugi no riron [The theory of nationalism in Fichte]. In Kakei kyōju kanreki shukuga ronbun shū [Collected essays celebrating the sixty-first birthday of Professor Kakei], pp. 1–96. Tokyo: Yūhikaku.Google Scholar
Nanbara, Shigeru.. 1959. Fichte no seiji tetsugaku [The political philosophy of Fichte]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Nathan, Andrew J. 1985. Chinese Democracy. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Nolte, Sharon Hamilton. 1984. “Individualism in Taishō Japan.” Journal of Asian Studies 43, no. 4 (August 1984):667–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nolte, Sharon Hamilton.. 1987. Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905–1980. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ōi, Kentarō. 1889. Jiyū ryaku [A brief discussion of liberty]. Osaka: Shōbidō.Google Scholar
Okudaira, Yasuhiro. 1977. Chian iji hō shōshi [A brief history of the Peace Preservation Law]. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō.Google Scholar
Pipes, Richard. 1974. Russia under the Old Regime. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974.Google Scholar
Pocock, J. G. A. 1962. “The History of Political Thought: A Methodological Enquiry.” In Laslett, Peter and Runciman, W. G., eds., Philosophy, Politics and Society (Second Series), pp. 183–202. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Pyle, Kenneth B. 1974. “Advantages of Followership: German Economics and Japanese Bureaucrats, 1890–1925.” Journal of Japanese Studies 1: 127–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raeff, Marc. 1966. Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia: The Eighteenth-Century Nobility. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.Google Scholar
Rankin, Mary Backus. 1971. Early Chinese Revolutionaries: Radical Intellectuals in Shanghai and Chekiang, 1902–1911. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salvadori, Massimo. 1977. The Liberal Heresy: Origins and Historical Development. New York: St. Martin's Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandel, Michael J. 1982. Liberalism and the Limits of Justice. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Scalapino, Robert A. 1953. Democracy and the Party Movement in Prewar Japan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheiner, Irwin. 1970. Christian Converts and Social Protest in Meiji Japan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Benjamin I. 1959. “Some Polarities in Confucian Thought.” In Nivison, D., ed., Confucianism in Action, pp. 50–62. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Benjamin I.. 1964. In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, Benjamin I.. 1972. “The Limits of ‘Tradition versus Modernity’ as Categories of Explanation.” Daedalus 101 (1972):71–88.Google Scholar
Shoji, Kichinosuke. 1959. Nihon seisha seitō hattatsu shi [History of the development of political societies in Japan]. Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobō.Google Scholar
Silberman, Bernard S. 1959. “The Political Theory and Program of YoshinoSakuzo.” Journal of Modern History 31, no. 4 (December 1959):310–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silberman, Bernard S.. 1982. “The Bureaucratic State in Japan: The Problem of Authority, and Legitimacy.” In Najita, Tetsuo and Koschmann, J. Victor, eds., Conflict in Modern Japanese History: The Neglected Tradition. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Spaulding, Robert M. Jr., 1971. “The Bureaucracy as a Political Force, 1920–1945.” In William Morley, James, ed. Dilemmas of Growth in Prewar Japan, pp. 33–80. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Spitz, David. 1982. The Real World of Liberalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Spragens, Thomas A. Jr., 1981. The Irony of Liberal Reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tanaka, Ōdō. 1909. “Iwano Hōmei shi no geijutsukan to jinseikan to o ronzu” [On Iwano Hōmei's views of art and human nature]. Chūō kōron [Central review] 24, no. 9, 19–71.Google Scholar
Tanaka, Ōdō.. 1915. “Yo ga kokumin-shugi no shuchō” [My nationalist views]. Chūō kōron [Central review] 30, no. 6 (June 1915): 18–37.Google Scholar
Tanaka, Ōdō.. 1918. Tettei kojin-shugi [Radical individualism], Tokyo: Tenyū-sha.Google Scholar
Tanaka, Ōdō.. 1978. “Kōgyō kyoiku no jiyōka” [The liberalization of industrial education]. In Taishō shisō shō [Collected essays in Taishō thought], ed. with a commentary by Imai Sei'ichi, pp. 264–86. Kindai Nihon shisō taikei [Outline of modern Japanese thought]. Vol. 33. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō.Google Scholar
Totten, George Oakley, II, I. 1966. The Social Democratic Movement in Prewar Japan. Studies in Japan's Social Democratic Parties, vol. I. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Toyama, Shigeki. 1967. “Reforms of the Meiji Restoration and the Birth of Modern Intellectuals,” Ada Asiatica, no. 13 (1967):55–99.Google Scholar
Treadgold, Donald W. 1951. “The Constitutional Democrats and the Russian Liberal Tradition.” The American Slavic and East European Review 10, no. 2: 85–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ueki, Emori. 1974. “Nihonkoku kokken an” [Draft of a constitution for Japan]. In Saburō, Ienaga, ed., Ueki Emori senshū [Selected writings of Ueki Emori], pp. 89–111. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Uesugi, Shinkichi. 1916. Kokutai kenpō oyobi kensei [The constitution of the kokutai and constitutional government]. Tokyo: Yūhikaku.Google Scholar
Venturi, Franco. 1960. Roots of Revolution: A History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in Nineteenth Century Russia, trans. Haskell, Francis. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, Universal Library Edition.Google Scholar
Wakeman, Frederic Jr. 1972. “The Price of Autonomy: Intellectuals in Ming and Ch'ing Politics.” Daedalus 101 (Spring 1972):35–70.Google Scholar
Ward, Robert E. 1968. “Introduction.” In Ward, Robert E., ed., Political Development in Modern Japan, pp. 3–9. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wray, Harold Joseph. 1971. “Changes and Continuity in Japanese Images of the Kokutai and Attitudes and Roles Toward the Outside World: A Content Analysis of Japanese Textbooks, 1903–1945.” Ph.D. diss., University of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Yoshino, Sakuzō. 1916a. “Iwayuru tennō shinsetsu sono ta o hyosu” [A critique of “imperial rule” and other notions]. Chūō kōron [Central review] (April 1916): 100–43.Google Scholar
Yoshino, Sakuzō. 1916b. “Kensei no hongi o toite sōno yushu no bi o sumasu no michi o ronzu” [On the means of perfecting constitutional government]. Chūō koron [Central review] (January 1916): 17–114.Google Scholar
Young, Ernest P. 1970. “Nationalism, Reform, and Republican Revolution.” In Crowley, James B., ed., Modern East Asia: Essays in Interpretation, pp. 151–79. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.Google Scholar