Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T09:31:04.977Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Illusion of Standardizing the Gods: The Cult of the Five Emperors in Late Imperial China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2010

Michael Szonyi
Get access

Extract

Nineteenth-century observers of the Fuzhou area, both Chinese and Western, were struck by the worship of a group of deities associated with pestilence and epidemic disease. The local people called these gods the Five Emperors (Wudi). To Justus Doolittle, an American missionary stationed in Fuzhou, Proclaimed Zuo Zongtang, Governor-General of Fujian and Zhejiang: “the rival societies for getting up processions to parade the idols have from the beginning violated the law and corrupted morals, hence the evil must be stopped without delay” (Zuo 1867, 22). While these two observers each brought his own concern to bear on his perceptions of popular belief and ritual practice, they were united in their focus on the dangers the worship of these deities posed to public morality and order; neither was much interested in the identities or histories of these gods. But a detailed investigation of their identities and histories may explain how the deities were perceived as dangerous to public morality and order, and offers rich insight into the social history of Late Imperial China.

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 56 , Issue 1 , February 1997 , pp. 113 - 135
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Baiji ji (Record of the white chicken). N.d. Manuscript.Google Scholar
Bamin tongzhi (Gazetteer of the Eight {Prefectures of} Min {Fujian}). {1490} 1989.Google Scholar
Bodde, Derk. 1975. Festivals in Ancient China. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cedzich, Ursula-Angelika. 1995. “The Cult of the Wu-tapos;ung/Wu-hsien in History and Fiction: The Religious Roots of the Journey to the South.” In Ritual and Scripture in Chinese Popular Religion, edited by Johnson, David. Berkeley, Calif.: Chinese Popular Culture Project.Google Scholar
Cedzich, Ursula-Angelika. 1985. “Wu-t’ung: Zur bewegten Geschichte eines Kultes” (Wu-t’ung: On the colourful history of a cult). In Religion und Philosophie in Ostasien: Festschrift fur Hans Steininger zum 65. Geburtstag, edited by Naundorf, Gert et al. Wurzburg: Konighausen und Neumann.Google Scholar
Changle xianzhi (Gazereer of Changle county). 1503.Google Scholar
Changle xianzhi (Gazeteer of Changle county). 1869.Google Scholar
Chen, Gaoyang et al. {1939} 1986. Zhongguo Lidai Tianzai Renhuo Biao (Table of Natural Disasters and Human Catastrophes in Chinese History). Shanghai: Jinan Daxue. Reprint. Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian.Google Scholar
Zhenrui., Chen 1930. “Wudi kao farm.” (Preliminary Investigation into the Five Emperors). Minsu zhoukan (weekly supplement to Minguo Ribao, Fuzhou edition). 3 parts. 12 (1 June); 13 (8 June); 15 (22 June). Daofa huiyuan (A Corpus of Daoist Ritual). CT 1220.Google Scholar
Dean, Kennet H (Din G Hesheng), and Zhengman., Zheng 1992. “Min-Tai Daojiao yu minjian zhushen chongbai chukao” (A Preliminary Study of Fujianese and Taiwanese Daoism in Relation to Popular Religious Worship). Minzu yanjiusuo jikan 73: 33–52.Google Scholar
Doolittle, Justus. 1865. Social Life of the Chinese; With Some Account of Their Religious, Governmental, Educational and Business Customs and Opinions, with special but not exclusive reference to Fuhchau. 2 vols. New York: Harper and Brothers.Google Scholar
Dorm, Henry. {1933} 1967. Researches into Chinese Superstitions, translated by Finn, D. J.. Shanghai: T’usewei Press. Reprint, Taibei: Ch’eng-Wen.Google Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 1988. “Superscribing Symbols: The Myth of Guandi, the Chinese God of Wat.” Journal of Asian Studies 47(4):778–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunstan, Helen. 1975. “The Late Ming Epidemics: A Preliminary Survey.” Ch’ing-shih Wen-t’i 3(3): 1–59.Google Scholar
Fujian tongzhi (General gazetteer of Fujian). 1871.Google Scholar
Fujian tongzhi (General gazetteer of Fujian). 1938.Google Scholar
Funing zhouzhi (Gazetteer of Funing Subprefecture). 1616.Google Scholar
Funing fuzhi (Gazetteer of Funing prefecture). 1762.Google Scholar
Fuzhou fuzhi (Gazetteer of Fuzhou prefecture). 1520.Google Scholar
Fuzhou fuzhi (Gazetteer of Fuzhou prefecture). 1754.Google Scholar
Glahn, Von, Richard. 1991. “The Enchantment of Wealth: The God Wutong in the Social History of Jiangnan.” HarvardJournal of Asiatic Studies 51(2):651–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyang., Guo N.d. Zhujian xuhua (Sayings on bamboo slips continued). Manuscript in the Fujian Provincial Library.Google Scholar
Gutian xianzhi (Gazetteer of Gutian county). 1751.Google Scholar
Sanren, Haiwai (pseud.). 1980. Rongcheng Jiwen (Record of tidings from the banyan city {Fuzhou}). In Qingshi ziliao. Beijing: Zhonghua.Google Scholar
Hansen, Valerie. 1990. Changing Gods in Medieval China, 1127–1276. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mai., Hong {1157–1202} 1981. Yijian zhi (Record of the listener). Beijing: Zhonghua.Google Scholar
Shi., Huang 1963. Duanwu Lisu Shi (History of Customs of the Festival of the Fifth Day of the Fifth Month). Hong Kong: Taixing.Google Scholar
Zhen., Huang N.d. Huangshi Richao (Daily notes of Mr. Huang). In Wenyuange Siku Quanshu. 1986. Taibei: Shangwu.Google Scholar
Jianning xianzhi (Gazetteer of Jianning county). 1919.Google Scholar
Katz, Paul. 1987. “Demons or Deities—The Wangye of Taiwan.” Asian Folklore Studies 46(2):197–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, Paul. 1990. “Wen Ch’iung—The God of Many Faces.” Hanxue yanjiu 8(1): 183–219.Google Scholar
Katz, Paul. 1995. Demon Hordes and Burning Boats: The Cult of Marshal Wen in Late Imperial Chekiang. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Fengmao, Li. 1993. “Daozang suoshou zaoqi daoshu de wenyi guan” (The understanding of pestilence in early Daoist books contained in the Daoist canon). Zhongguo wenzhe yanjiu jikan 3: 1–38.Google Scholar
Fengmao, Li. 1994. “Xingwen yu songwen: daojiao yu minzhong wenyi guan de jiaoliu he fenqi” (Causing and driving away plague: interaction of and distinctions between Daoist and popular understandings of pestilence). In Minjian xinyang yu zhongguo wen hua guoji yantaohui lunwenji. Nangang: Hanxue yanjiuzhongxin congkan, lunzhulei 4.Google Scholar
Heng., Lian {1920–21} 1983. Taiwan Tongshi (General History of Taiwan). Beijing: Shangwu.Google Scholar
LIREN HEQIU (pseud.). 1987. Mindu bieji (Supplementary record of the Min capital {Fuzhou}). Fuzhou: Fujian Renmin.Google Scholar
Zhiwan., Liu {1963} 1983. “Taiwan zhi wenshen xinyang” (Belief in gods of plague in Taiwan). In Taiwan minjian xinyang lunji. Taibei: Taiwan Yanjiu Congkan. (Originally published in Taiwan shengli bowuguan kexue niankan 6.)Google Scholar
Lo, Vivienne. 1993. “The Legend of the Lady of Linshui.” Journal of Chinese Religions 21: 69–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Der Loon, Piet. 1977. “Les origines rituelles du theatre chinois.” Journal Asiatique 265(1–2):69–96.Google Scholar
Van Der Loon, Piet. 1979. “A Taoist Collection of the Fourteenth Century.” In Studia Sino-Mongolica; Festschrift fur Herbert Franke, edited by Bauer, Wolfgang. Munchener Ostasiatische Studien, 25. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH.Google Scholar
Zongli, Lü and Baojun, Luan. 1986. Zhongguo minjian zhushen (The Popular Gods of China). Hebei: Henan Renmin.Google Scholar
Luozhou zhi (Gazetteer of Luozhou). 1863.Google Scholar
Mcneill, William. 1976. Plagues and Peoples. New York: Anchor.Google Scholar
Mindu ji (Record of the Min capital {Fuzhou}). {1612} 1831.Google Scholar
Minhou xianzhi (Gazetteer of Minhou county). 1933.Google Scholar
Tsuyosi., Nakatani 1987. “Min-Shin jidai Fukushu shakai no minkan shinkō” (Popular beliefs in Fuzhou society in the Ming-Qing). Shiyu 19: 1–15.Google Scholar
Nuqing guilu (The Nuqing Register of demons). CT 790.Google Scholar
Dezai., Qiu 1981. Taiwan miaoshen zhuan (Record of the Temples and Deities of Taiwan). Jiayi: Fule.Google Scholar
San Guo zhi (History of the Three Kingdoms). 1990. Changsha: YueluGoogle Scholar
Sanshan zhi (Gazetteer of Three Mountains {Fuzhou}). {1182} 1638. In Song-Yuan Difangzhi congshu. 1980. Taibei: Guotai wenhua.Google Scholar
Schipper, Kristofer. 1985. “Seigneurs Royaux, Dieux des Épidémies.” Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions 59(1): 31–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dongyuan., Sun 1888. Yongjia wenjianlu (Record of things heard and seen in Yongjia county).Google Scholar
Szonyi, Michael. 1996. Village Rituals in Fuzhou in the Late Imperial and Republican Periods. D. Phil, diss., Oxford University.Google Scholar
Taishang dongyuan ciwenshen zhou miaojing (Sublime scripture of the most high profundity to expel plague gods). CT 54.Google Scholar
Taishang dongyuan shen zhoujing (Scripture of spells for the gods of the most high profundity). CT 335.Google Scholar
Taishang sanwu bang jiu jiao wudi duanwen yi (Ritual of the most high three and five jiao of entreaty for the stopping of plague by the five emperors). CT 809.Google Scholar
Xianyue., Tang 1653. Chengnan dingjian xingshengmiao chongji wuhuang dadi beiji (Inscription Recording the Construction South of the City {of Xianyou} of the Temple of Flourishing Sagehood {wherein} the Five Great Emperors are Worshipped). Inscription located in Putian.Google Scholar
Tianxian wuhuang dadi xiaojie benxing baojing (Precious scripture of the basic exorcistic practice of the heavenly immortals, the five great emperors). Manuscript. Tianxianfu wulinggong (The five numinous gentlemen of the palace of heavenly immortals). Manuscript.Google Scholar
Tingzhou fuzhi (Gazetteer of Tingzhou prefecture). 1752.Google Scholar
Zhideng., Wang 1646. Wushe bian (Compilation on the Altars of Wu). In Baoyantang miji. 1922. Shanghai: Wenming.Google Scholar
Watson, James. 1985. “Standardizing the Gods: The Promotion of T’ien Hou (“Empress of Heaven”) Along the South China Coast, 960–1960.” In Popular Culture in Late Imperial China, edited by Johnson, David et al. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wuhuang xizhuan (The five emperors drama). Manuscript.Google Scholar
Wushishan zhi (Gazetteer of Wushishan {Black Rock Hill}). 1842.Google Scholar
Xiapu xianzhi (Gazetteer of Xiapu county). 1929.Google Scholar
Zhangting., Xie {1901} 1975. Duqi shanzhuang quanji (Complete works from the Gambling and Chess Mountain Home). Shanghai: Wenhai.Google Scholar
Xihu zhi (Gazetteer of West Lake {Fuzhou}). 1915.Google Scholar
Xilaian, Guanli Weiyuanhui. 1965. Chifeng wufu dadi jingli (History of the imperially appointed great emperors of the five good fortunes). Pamphlet.Google Scholar
Xinbian lianxiang soushenji (Newly compiled version with facing pictures of “In search of the sacred”). In Huitu sanjiao yuanliu soushenji. 1990. Shanghai: Shanghai guji.Google Scholar
Xiaowang, Xu. 1993. Fujian minjian xinyang yuanliu (Sources and History of Popular Beliefs in Fujian). Fuzhou: Fujian Jiaoyu.Google Scholar
Shi, Ye. N.d. Shuixin ji (Collected Writings of Ye Shi). In Sibu biyao. 1930. Shanghai: Zhonghua.Google Scholar
Shenxing., Zha 1986. Jingyetang shiji (Collected poems of Zha Shenxing). In Zhongguo gudian wenxue congshu. Shanghai: Shanghai guji.Google Scholar
Zhengyi wensi bi dushen dengyi (Zhengyi lantern ritual of the expulsion of disease gods by the supervisor of plagues). CT 209.Google Scholar
Zhongguo minjian gushi jicheng, Fujian juan, Fuzhou shi fenjuan (Collected popular stories of China, Fuzhou, Fujian volume). 1990. Fuzhou.Google Scholar
Xi., Zhu {1270} 1986. Zhuzi Yulei (Recorded Sayings of Master Zhu). Beijing: Zhonghua.Google Scholar
Zhuo., Zhuang {1133} 1988. Jile bian (Chicken-rib compilation). Beijing: Zhonghua.Google Scholar
Zongtang., Zuo 1867. “A Proclamation Against Certain Idolatrous Practices” translated by the Rev. S. F. Woodin. The Missionary Recorder (Fuzhou) 1.Google Scholar