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Chinese Archaeology since 1949

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2011

K. C. Chang
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The second half of the twentieth century may be remembered by Chinese archaeologists as the Golden Age of their discipline. A unique combination of factors and circumstances has produced, and will probably continue to produce for a time, enormous amounts of new material for the study of Chinese prehistory and history. These factors and circumstances include a deep-rooted interest of the Chinese people in their past, not only for its own sake but also for guidance, as lesson; the introduction, in the first half of the century, of Western archaeological science; systematic, large-scale, and sustained national projects to construct roads, canals, reservoirs, and buildings throughout China; and a conscious and conscientious effort to include archaeology as an important part of the political education of the people. This sudden flood of new data—most hitherto unknown, and many unexpected and almost unimaginable—provides unprecedented opportunities for gaining new and much richer knowledge of China's past. China scholars will be busy coping with the new materials for decades to come. They should count themselves extremely lucky, for such opportunities are not likely to arise again after the present century; archaeological relics are a limited resource, even in China.

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The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 36 , Issue 4 , August 1977 , pp. 623 - 646
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Copyright © Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1977

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References

1 Te-k'un, Cheng, “Archaeology in Communist China,” The China Quarterly, 23 (1965), pp. 67–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Much of the discussion in this section has been based on first-hand observation in China in May–June 1975.

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4 K'ao ku [or Kao gu] (Archaeology) [hereafter KK], published by the Institute of Archaeology, Academia Sinica, Peking [hereafter AS-P], 1972 (1), pp. 8–18, 28Google Scholar.

5 K'ao ku hsüeh pao [or Kao gu xue bao] (Archaeological Journal) [hereafter KKHP], published by idem, 1974 (2), pp. 87–109Google Scholar.

6 See the following syntheses of data prior to 1949: Chardin, P. Teilhard de, Early Man in China, Peking: Institut de Gèo-Biologie, 1941Google Scholar; Movius, H. L. Jr., Early Man and Pleistocene Stratigraphy in Southern and Eastern Asia, Harvard Univ., Papers of the Peabody Museum, 19 (1944)Google Scholar; Wen-chung, P'ei, Chung-kuo shih ch'ien shih ch'i chih yen chiu, Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1948Google Scholar; ndersson, J. G., “Researches into the Prehistory of the Chinese,” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (Stockholm), 15 (1943)Google Scholar; Chi, Li, The Beginnings of Chinese Civilization, Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1957Google Scholar.

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8 VP, XIII (1975). PP. 81–88Google Scholar.

9 See Ju-kang, Woo, Chü Yüan Hsia Ho Ku ho Ya Ch'ih Hua Shih, Peking: Science Press, Pa-laeontologia Sinica, n.s. D, II, 1962Google Scholar; VP, XII (1974), PP. 293–306.

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11 VP:III (1959), PP. 41–45, 169–72; IV (1961), pp. 374–78; VII (1963), pp. 84–86; XI (1973), pp. 109–31.

12 Shan-hsi Lan-t'ien Hsin-sheng-chieh, Peking: Science Press, 1966Google Scholar. VP: VII (1963), pp. 376–78; VIII (1964), pp. 1–17, 152–61; X (1966), pp. 1–22, 23–29. KKHP, 1973 (2), pp. 1–11. Wen Wu [published by Wen Wu Press, Peking; will hereafter be WW]: 1965 (1), pp. 19–23; 1973 (6), PP. 41–44.

13 Ch'eng-chih, Hu, Acta Geologica Sinica, 1973 (I), pp. 65–71Google Scholar.

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15 VP, XII (1974), pp. 139–57.

16 Lan-p'o, Chia, Tse-yi, Wang, and Chien, Wang, K'o Ho, Peking: Science Press, 1962Google Scholar.

17 VP, XIII (1975), pp. 122–36.

18 For bibliographic references of Paleolithic discoveries in China up to 1966, see my articles in Arctic Anthropology, I, 2 (1963), pp. 29–61; Science, 136 (1962), pp. 749–60, and 162 (1968), pp. 519–26. For more recent Middle and Upper Paleolithic discoveries, see VP: XI (1973), pp. 105–06, 221–23, 223–26; XIII (1975), pp. 14–23, KK, 1972 (I), pp. 43–44; KKHP: 1972 (I), pp. 39–58; 1973 (2), pp. 13–26. On the current status of Tze-yang Man, see KKHP, 1974 (2), pp. 111–23.

19 VP, III (1961), pp. 212–40; Aigner, Jean S., “Relative Dating of North Chinese Faunal and Cultural Complexes,” Arctic Anthropology, IX (1972), pp. 36–79Google Scholar. [Since the writing of this article, the first results of paleomagnetic dating were announced in summer 1976. K.C.C.]

20 To save space, only the most important sources will be cited. For general bibliographies of Chinese archaeology before 1966, see Council for Old World Archaeology (Cambridge), COW A Bibliographies, Area 17, Far East, Nos. I-IV, 1959–1969 [hereafter COWA]; and Chen, C. M. and Stamps, Richard B. (comps.), An Index to Chinese Archaeological Works Published in the People's Republic of China, 1949–1965, Michigan State Univ. Asian Studies Center, 1972Google Scholar.

21 Hsi-an Pan-p'o, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1962Google Scholar.

22 Miao-ti-kou yü San-li-ch'iao, Peking: Science Press, 1959Google Scholar.

23 Ta-wen-k'ou, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1974Google Scholar.

24 Chang, K. C. et al. , Fengpitou, Tapenkeng, and the Prehistory of Taiwan, New Haven: Yale Univ. Publications in Anthropology, No. 73, 1969Google Scholar.

25 KK: 1972(1), pp. 52–56; 1972(5), pp. 56–58; 1974 (5). PP. 333–38. Radiocarbon: 11 (1969), pp. 545–658; 12 (1970), pp. 187–92; 15 (1973), PP. 345–49.

26 Chang, K. C. et al. (n. 24 above); Lin Ch'ao-ch'i, “Chin-men Fu-kuo-tun pei chung yi chih,” Bulletin of the Dept. of Archaeology and Anthropology, National Taiwan University [hereafter B-NTU], 33/34 (1973). PP. 36–38Google Scholar.

26 KKHP, 1963 (1), pp. 1–16; VP, VII (1963), pp. 263–77.

28 Huang Shih-ch'iang, B-NTU, 35/36 (1974), p. 66.

29 Lin Ch'ao-ch'i (n. 26 above), p. 36.

30 See my “Yale Expedition to Taiwan and the Southeast Asian Horticultural Evolution,” Discovery, II, 2, (1967), pp. 3–10Google Scholar.

31 Shan-ch'ing, Wu, WW, 1963 (6), pp. 45–61Google Scholar.

32 “Northern Thailand, Southeast Asia, and World Prehistory,” Asian Perspectives, XIII (1972), p. 155Google Scholar.

33 Gorman, Chester, “Excavations at Spirit Cave, North Thailand,” Asian Perspectives, XIII (1972), pp. 97–107Google Scholar.

34 See my “A Working Hypothesis for the Early Cultural History of South China,” Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Taipei [hereafter AS-T], 7 (1959), pp. 43–103Google Scholar.

35 For titles before mid–1966, see COWA. For more recent finds, see KK, KKHP, and WW, 1972 on, various issues; and Te-k'un, Cheng, “New Light on Shang China,” Antiquity, XLIX (1975), pp. 25–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 For a different view, see Kane, V. C., “The Independent Bronze Industries in the South of China Contemporary with the Shang and Western Chou Dynasties,” Archives of Asian Art, XXVIII (1974/1975). PP. 77–107Google Scholar.

37 See recent discussions on the question of the origin of private property and of the state in KK, 1975(4), PP. 213–21; also WW: 1975 (5), pp. 27–34; 1975 (6), pp. 29–33.

38 Recent essays on the origin of the Chinese writing system: Kuo Mo-jo, KKHP, 1972 (1), pp. 1–13; Hsiao-ting, Li, Nanyang University Journal (Singapore), 3 (1969), pp. 1–28Google Scholar; and Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, AS-T, 45 (1974), PP. 343–95Google Scholar; Te-k'un, Cheng, Journal of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1 (1973), pp. 37–58Google Scholar; Hsing-wu, Yü, WW, 1973 (2), pp. 32–35.Google Scholar

39 Inscribed signs on pottery have also been reported from Chiang-chai in Lin-t'ung (Shensi), a Yang-shao site (WW, 1975, 8, p. 82); and from two Ta-wen-k'ou culture sites in Shantung (Ta-wen-k'ou, n. 23 above, p. 117).

40 See note 37 above.

41 This has long been advocated by Liang Ssu-yung; see his “The Lungshan Culture,” Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Science Congress, 4 (1939), pp. 69–79Google Scholar. For recent discussions on newer data, see KK, 1975 (4) P. 214; WW, 1975 (5), p. 31.

42 Pferd und Wagen im Frühen China, Bonn: Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, I (1964)Google Scholar.

43 Barnard, Noel, Bronze Casting and Bronze Alloys in Ancient China, Tokyo: Monumenta Serica, and the Australian Nat'l Univ., Monumenta Serica Monograph XIV, 1961Google Scholar; Gettens, R. J., The Freer Chinese Bromes. Vol. II: Technical Studies, Washington, D.C., 1969Google Scholar.

44 Ichisada, Miyazaki, Tōyōshi kenkyū, 28 (1970), pp. 265–82Google Scholar, and 29 (1970), pp. 275–80, presents a novel idea that the present site at An-yang was never a capital city.

45 On Hsiao-t'un, the following volumes have been published: by Shih Chang-ju Yin Hsü Chien Chu I Ts'un (1959), Pei-tsu Mu-tsang(1970), Chung-tsu Mu-tsang (1972), Nan-tsu Mu-tsang (1973,),' by Li Chi, T'ao ch'i, 1956. On Hou-chia-chuang “royal tombs,” the following have been reported by Liang Ssu-yung and Kao Ch'ü-hsün: 1001 (1962), 1002 (1965), 1003 (1967), 1004 (1970), 1217 (1968), and 1500 (1974). All of the above were published by the Institute of History and Philology, AS-T. See also Li Chi, An-yang, Univ. of Washington Press, forthcoming.

46 “The Bronze Styles of the Anyang Period,” Archives of the Chinese Art Society of America, VI (1953). PP. 42–53Google Scholar; Ritual Vessels of Bronze Age China, New York: The Asia Society, 1968Google Scholar.

47 See their reports in Archaeologia Sinica: n.s. i (1964), 2 (1966), 3 (1968), 4 (1970), 5 (1972); also Fairbank, Wilma, “Piece-Mold Craftsmanship and Shang Bronze Design,” Archives (n. 46 above), 16 (1962), pp. 9–15Google Scholar.

48 Feng-hsi fa chüeh pao kao, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1962Google Scholar.

49 The two largest assemblages of these bronzes are from Chang-chia-p'o and Ch'i-chia-ts'un; see Ch'ang-An Chang-chia-p'o Hsi-Chou t'ung ch'i ch'ün, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1965Google Scholar; Fu-feng Ch'i- chia-ts'un ch'ing t'ung ch'i ch'un, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1963Google Scholar. For general discussions, see Takayasu, Higuchi, Tōyōshi kenkyū, XVI, 3 (1957), pp. 40–61Google Scholar, and Acta Asiatica, 3 (1962), pp. 30–43Google Scholar.

50 For Eastern Chou finds before 1966, see COWA. Of important finds after 1966, Chiang-ling in Hupei is probably the most prominent. See KK: 1972(2), p. 67; 1972(3), PP. 4–148; 1973(3), PP.151–61; 1973 (6), pp. 337–44; also WW: 1972 (1), P. 75; 1973 (9), PP. 7–17; and Juliano, A. L., Artibus Asiae, 37 (1972), pp. 5–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a synthesis of the archaeology of Ch'u civilization, see my “Major Aspects of Ch'u Archaeology” in Barnard, Noel (ed.), Early Chinese Art and Its Possible Influence in the Pacific Basin (New York: Intercultural Arts Press, 1972), I, pp. 5–52Google Scholar.

51 For investigations of the Ch'in Shih Huang tomb: KK, 1962 (8), pp. 407–11; WW, 1975 (11), pp. 1–30. For work at the Ch'in capital city in Hsien-yang, KK: 1962 (6), pp. 281–89; 1973 (3), pp. 167–70; 1974 (1), pp. 281–89. For a contemporary assessment of the historical role of Ch'in Shih Huang, as seen from archaeology: Shih-min, Wang, “Ch'in Shih Huang t'ung i Chung-kuo ti li shih tso yüng,” KK, 1973 (6), pp. 364–71Google Scholar.

52 K'ao ku t'ung hsün (Peking) [hereafter KKTH]: 1957(5), PP. 102–10; 1958(2), pp. 233–32. See Okazaki, T., Tōyōshi kenkyü, 16 (1957), pp. 62–93Google Scholar, for a general discussion.

53 Monographic reports of Han-period tombs include: Wang-tu Han-mu pi hua, Peking: China Classic Arts Press, 1955Google Scholar; I-nan ku hua hsiang shih mu fa chüeh pao kao, Peking: Ministry of Culture, 1956Google Scholar; Wang-tu Erh-hao Han-mu, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1959Google Scholar; Lo-yang Shao-kou Han-mu, Peking: Science Press, 1959Google Scholar; Yün-nan Chin-ning Shih-chai shan ku mu tsang ch'ün fa chüeh pao kao, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1959Google Scholar; Ssu-ch'uan ch'uan kuan tsang fa chüeh pao kao, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1960Google Scholar. (Ma-wang-tui reports are listed in n. 56 below.) Important reports published in WW: 1955 (5), pp. 15–42; 1961 (4/5), PP. 44–51; 1972 (5), pp. 19–24; 1972 (10), pp. 41–62; 1972 (12), pp. 9–41; 1973 (6), pp. 16–40; 1973 (7), PP. 49–53; 1974 (1), pp. 8–50. Takayasu's, HiguchiKodai Chūgoku o hakktsu-suru (Tokyo: Shinchosha, 1975)Google Scholar has a synthesis of Former Han tomb styles. Recent descriptions in English include: Rudolph, R. C., Archaeology, 26 (1973), pp. 106–15Google Scholar; Chaves, J., Artibus Asiae, 30 (1968), pp. 5–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Shih, H. Y., Artibus Asiae, 22 (1959), PP. 277–312CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 KK: 1972 (1), pp. 8–18, 28; 1972 (2), pp. 39–47.

55 KKHP, 1974 (2), pp. 87–109.

56 For tomb no. 1: Ch'ang-sha Ma-wang-tui l- hao Han-mu, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1973Google Scholar. For tombs nos. 2 and 3: WW, 1974 (7), pp. 39–48; KK, 1975 (1), PP. 47–57, 61.

57 Wu-wei Han chien, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1964; M. Loewe, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1965, pp. 13–26Google Scholar.

58 WW: 1974 (2), pp. 15–35; 1974 (12), pp. 11–24.

59 KK: 1959 (10), pp. 549–58; 1961 (5), pp. 248–50; 1961 (7), pp. 341–44; 1961 (11), pp. 619–24; 1963 (11), pp. 595–611; 1974 (1), pp. 33–39; 1974 (5), PP. 322–27. KKHP, 1958 (3), PP.79–93. WW, 1972 (i), pp. 30–46; 1973 (7), pp. 30–48. T'ang Ch'ang-an Ta-ming-kung, Inst, of Archaeology, AS-P, 1959.

60 KKHP: 9 (1955), pp. 117–36; 1956 (4), PP.21–54. KK: 1961 (3), PP. 127–35; 1973 (4), PP. 198–208, 209–17. Ho Ping-ti: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 26 (1966), pp. 52–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Papers Presented to Dr. Li Chi on His 70th Birthday (Taipei: The Tsinghua Journal, 1965), pp. 219–44Google Scholar.

61 KK: 1972 (1), pp. 19–28; 1972 (6), pp. 2–11, 25–31.

62 KKHP, 1956 (3), pp. 33–75. WW: 1960 (4), pp. 53–60; 1964 (1), pp. 7–33; 1972 (7), pp. 13–50; 1974 (9), pp. 71–94. Han T'ang pi hua, T'ang Li Ch'ung-jun mu pi hua, and T'ang Li Hsien mu pi hua, all three Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1974.

63 KK, 1959 (2), pp. 76–81. WW: 1960 (6), pp. 13–21; 1972 (1), pp. 8–29; 1972 (2), pp. 2–15; 1972 (3), PP. 14–19; 1973 (1), PP. 7–80.

64 KKTH, 1958 (5), pp. 66–69. KK: 1959 (5), pp. 231–36; 1963 (6), pp. 291–300, 303–07. WW: 1959 (4), pp. 21–25; 1960 (8/9), pp. 37–42. Nan-ching Liu-ch'ao t'ao yung, Peking: China Classical Arts Press, 1958Google Scholar.

65 KKTH, 1956 (4), pp. 1–4. KK: 1959 (2), pp. 89–93; 1960 (2), pp. 25–28; 1962 (9), pp. 479–83; 1963 (8), pp. 432–36; 1972 (3), PP. 35–40. WW: 1961 (9), PP. 34–40; 1973 (8), pp. 2–18, 30–35; 1975 (8), PP. 31–44; 1975 (12), pp. 26–62. Yutaka, Mino, Ceramics in the Liao Dynasty North and South of the Great Wall, New York: China Institute in America, 1973Google Scholar.

66 WW: 1955 (1), pp. 69–94; 1972 (12), pp. 47–54. Mai-chi shan shih k'u, Peking: Ministry of Culture, 1954Google Scholar; Tun-huang pi hua, Peking, 1959; Shan-hsishih tiao ishu, T'ai-yuan, Shansi Museum, 1962; W. and Forman, F., Ancient Reliefs of China, Peking: Jenmin Press, 1962Google Scholar; Kung-hsien shih k'u ssu, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1963Google Scholar; Yung-Lo kung, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1964Google Scholar.

67 Shan-hsi T'ung-ch'uan Yao-chou yao, Peking: Science Press, 1965Google Scholar. KK, 1965 (8), pp. 394–412. KKHP: 1959 (3), pp. 107–19; 1960 (1), pp. 89–103; 1973 (1), PP. 131–56. WW: 1952 (1), pp. 56–62; 1958 (10), pp. 32–35; 1959 (3), PP. 56–58; 1959 (10), pp. 44–49; 1964 (3), PP. 47–55; 1964 (8), pp. 1–48; 1965 (9), pp. 26–56; 1965 (11), pp. 35–43; 1972 (3), PP. 34–48; 1973 (3), PP. 46–51; 1973 (5). PP. 30–40; 1974 (12), pp. 74–81. Yutaka, Mino and Wilson, P., An Index to Chinese Kiln Sites from Six Dynasties to the Present, Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum, 1973Google Scholar.

68 Ralph, E. K., Michael, H. N., and Han, M. C., “Radiocarbon Dates and Reality,” MASCA News–letter (Applied Science Center for Archaeology, University Museum, Univ. of Pennsylvania), IX (1973), PP. 1–20Google Scholar. For discussion of the new radiocarbon dates, see An Chih-min, KK: 1972 (1), pp. 57–59; 1972 (6), pp. 35–44. Also my articles in Current Anthropology, 14 (1973), pp. 525–28, and B-NTU, 37/38 (1976), pp. 29–43; Pearson, R. J., Antiquity, XLVII (1973), pp. 141–43Google Scholar; Barnard, Noel, The First Radiocarbon Dates from China, Australian National University, Monographs on Far Eastern History, 8, new ed., 1975Google Scholar.

69 See, for example, the issues raised by Kane, V. C. in “A Reexamination of An-yang Archaeology,” Ars Orientalis, X (1975), pp. 93–110Google Scholar. An earlier view of the same issue is in Loehr, M., “The Stratigraphy of Hsiao-t'un (An-yang),” Ars Orientalis, II (1957), pp. 439–58Google Scholar. Li Chi's Anyang (n. 45 above) and Umehara's, S.Yin Hsü (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1964Google Scholar) are the only comprehensive descriptions of this important site.

70 For using archaeology to help date paintings, see Lee, S. E. and Fong, Wen, Streams and Mountains without End, Artibus Asiae Supplementa XIV (1955)Google Scholar; and Bush, S., “Clearing after Snow in the Min Mountains and Chin Landscape Painting,” Oriental Art, II (1965), pp. 163–72Google Scholar. Another outstanding example concerns the authenticity of Lan T'ing Hsü, in the light of the calligraphic styles of the Eastern Chin period seen in archaeological finds; WW: 1965 (6), pp. 1–25; 1965 (7, supplement), pp. 1–14.

71 ”Prehistory and Archaeology [of China],” Encyclopedia Britannica, Macropaedia, 1974, IV, pp. 297–301Google Scholar; Vasiliev, L. S., in Voprosy Istorü, 1974 (12), pp. 86–102Google Scholar.

72 See note 32 above.

73 ”The Far East” in Stigler, R. (ed.), Varieties of Culture in the Old World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975), pp. 106–28Google Scholar.

74 See my “Man and Land in Central Taiwan,” Journal of Field Archaeology, 1 (1974), pp. 265–75Google Scholar.

75 The Origin, Variation, Immunity, and Breeding of Cultivated Plants, Chronica Botanica, 13 (1949/ 50).

76 ”The Origin of Cultivated Plants in Southeast Asia,” Economic Botany, 24 (1970), pp. 3–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 See my “The Beginnings of Agriculture in the Far East,” Antiquity, XLIX (1970), pp. 175–85Google Scholar; Ho, Ping-ti: “The Loess and the Origin of Chinese Agriculture,” American Historical Review, LXXV (1969), pp. 1–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Huang t'u yü Chung-kuo nung yeh ti ch'i yüan, Hong Kong: Chinese University, 1969Google Scholar.

78 Ho, Ping-ti, “The Introduction of American Food Plants into China,” American Anthropologist, 57 (1955), PP. 191–201CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 Note 73 above, pp. 107–08.

80 Treistman, , “China at 1000 B.C.: A Cultural Mosaic,” Science, 160 (1968), pp. 853–56CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

81 The Cultural Ecology of Chinese Civilization (New York: The New American Library, 1974), p. 5Google Scholar.

82 Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968.

83 Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung (Peking: Foreign Language Press), III, p. 203; IV, p. 423.

84 WW, 1974 (6), pp. 8–15; KK, 1975 (2), PP. 80–85. See also a series of articles about the “struggle between the Confucian and Legalist schools” in Chinese history, using much archae- ological data, in China Reconstructs: March, May, July, September, and November 1975.

85 Mo-jo, Kuo, “Chung-kuo shang ku shih ti fen ch'i wen t',” KK, 1972 (5), pp. 2–7Google Scholar. For a summary of previous efforts: Ch'un-shu, Chang, “The Periodization of Chinese History,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, AS-T, 45 (1973), pp. 157–79Google Scholar.

86 KK: 1961 (12), pp. 691–92; 1962 (3), pp. 158–60; 1962 (5), pp. 256–61; 1962 (11), pp. 592–97, 598–600.

87 See note 37 above.

88 See note 85 above.

89 Three good examples: Chi, Li, The Begin–nings of Chinese Civilization, Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1957Google Scholar; Heine-Geldern, Robert von, Lung-shan Culture and East Caspian Culture, Tokyo: Japanese Commission for UNESCO, 1957Google Scholar; Pulleyblank, E. G., “Prehistoric East-West Contacts across Eurasia,” Pacific Affairs, 47 (1974/1975), PP. 500–08CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 Skinner, G. W., “Marketing and Social Struc–ture in Rural China,” Journal of Asian Studies, XXIV (1964/1965), pp. 1–43. 195–228, 363–99Google Scholar.

91 One attempt to study trade connections among Shang settlements is my “Ancient Trade as Economics or as Ecology” in Sabloff, J. A. and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1975), pp. 211–24Google Scholar.

92 Wheatley, Paul, The Pivot of the Four Quarters, Chicago: Aldine, 1971Google Scholar; my “Urbanism and the King in Ancient China,” World Archaeology, 6 (1974), PP. 1–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

93 For bronze, see note 43 above. For iron, KKHP: 1956(2), pp. 125–40; 1960(1), pp. 73–87; WW, 1973 (6), pp. 62–65; Needham, Joseph, The Development of Iron and Steel Technology in China, London: Newcomen Society, 1958Google Scholar; Yoshida, T., Tōhōgakuhō (Kyoto), 29 (1959), pp. 51–110Google Scholar.

94 For silk, KK, 1972 (2), pp. 12–27. For paper-making, KKHP, 1956(1), pp. 115–26; WW: 1957 (7), PP. 78–81; 1964 (11), pp. 48–49; 1973 (9), pp. 45–51; also Hsü Cho-yün, in Bulletin … (n. 85 above, AS-T, 44 (1973), pp. 733–61.

95 KK, 1974(4), PP. 251–54; WW, 1975 (2), PP. 1–25.

96 WW: 1974 (8), pp. 76–90; 1975 (1), PP. 74–78; 1975 (5), pp. 76–83. Needham, , Science and Civilization in China, IV, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1971.Google Scholar

97 Needham, ibid., III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heaven and the Earth, 1959, pp. 171–494. For a recent discovery: WW, 1974 (3), pp. 59–70.

98 Needham, ibid.; Yabuuti, Kiyoshi, “Chinese Astronomy: Development and Limiting Factors” in Nakayama, S. and Sivin, N. (eds.), Chinese Science (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973), pp. 91–103Google Scholar. For recent discoveries of star charts, KK: 1965 (2), pp. 80–90; 1975 (1), pp. 58–61; 1975 (3), pp. 153–57; WW: 1974 (11), PP. 28–39; 1974 (12), pp. 56–60; 1975 (8), pp. 41–44.

99 For cartographic background: Needham (n. 97 above), pp. 525–90. The new maps found from Ma-wang-tui tomb no. 3 are described in WW, 1975 (2), pp. 35–48; KK, 1975 (2), pp. 80–90.

100 KK, 1972 (3), pp. 49–53; WW: 1972 (6), pp. 47–60; 1973 (12), pp. 18–31.

101 KK, 1972(6), pp. 53–58.

102 Note 3 above, pp. 137–43.

103 ”Some Fundamental Issues in the History of Chinese Painting,” Journal of Asian Studies, XXIII (1964), p. 186Google Scholar.

104 Ibid., pp. 186–87.

105 Some general books on Chinese archae–ology:

K'ao ku hsüeh chi ch'u, Peking: Science Press, 1958Google Scholar.

Zushi sekai bunkashi taikei, vols. 15 and 16, Chūgoku I, II, Tokyo: Katokawa, 1958–1959.Google Scholar

Sekai kōkogaku taikei, vols. 5–7, Tokyo: Heìbonsha, 1958, 1959, 1963.Google Scholar

Te-k'un, Cheng, Archaeology in China, vols. I–III, Cambridge: Heffer, 1959, 1961, 1963, 1966Google Scholar; “The Beginning of Chinese Civilization,” Antiquity, XLVII (1973), pp. 197–209.Google Scholar

Hsin Chung-kuo ti k'ao ku shou huo, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1962.Google Scholar

Watson, William, Handbook to the Collections of Early Chinese Antiquities, London: British Museum, 1963Google Scholar; Early Civilization in China, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966Google Scholar; Ancient China, London: BBC, 1974.Google Scholar

Hentze, Carl, Funde in Alt-China, Göttingen: Musterschmidt-Verlag, 1967.Google Scholar

Chang, K. C., The Archaeology of Ancient China (rev. ed.), New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1968. (3d rev. ed. in preparation)Google Scholar

Akiyama, T. et al. , Arts of China. Neolithic Cultures to the T'ang Dynasty: Recent Discoveries, Tokyo & Palo Alto: Kodansha, 1968.Google Scholar

Higuchi, T., Pekin genjin kara dōki made, Tokyo: Shinchosha, 1969.Google Scholar

Wen hua ta ke ming ch'i chien ch'u t'u wen wu, Peking: Wen Wu Press, 1972.Google Scholar

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