Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T04:13:55.621Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Volatile State in Southeast Asia: Evidence from Sumatra, 1600–1800

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2010

Freek Colombijn
Get access

Extract

The communis opinio of historians is that early modern, or precolonial, states in Southeast Asia tended to lead precarious existences. The states were volatile in the sense that the size of individual states changed quickly, a ruler forced by circumstances moved his state capital, the death of a ruler was followed by a dynastic struggle, or a local subordinate head either ignored or took over the central state power; in short, states went through short cycles of rise and decline. Perhaps nobody has helped establish this opinion more than Clifford Geertz (1980) with his powerful metaphor of the “theatre state.” Many scholars have preceded and followed him in their assessment of the shakiness of the state (see, for example, Andaya 1992, 419; Bentley 1986, 292; Bronson 1977, 51; Hagesteijn 1986, 106; Milner 1982, 7; Nagtegaal 1996, 35, 51; Reid 1993, 202; Ricklefs 1991, 17; Schulte Nordholt 1996, 143–48). The instability itself was an enduring phenomenon. Most polities existed in a state of flux, oscillating between integration and disintegration, a phenomenon which was first analyzed for mainland Southeast Asia by Edmund Leach (1954) in his seminal work on the Kachin chiefdoms. This alternation of state formation and the breaking up of kingdoms has been called the “ebb and flow of power” and the “rhythm” of Malay history (Andaya and Andaya 1982, 35). In this article, I will probe into the causes of the volatility of the Southeast Asian states, using material from Sumatra to make my case.

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 62 , Issue 2 , May 2003 , pp. 497 - 529
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Alatas, Sharifah Munirah. 1997. “Cultural Symbolism and Legitimization in the Context of Change: Early Malay State Formation.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Algemeen Rijksarchief (ARA). The Hague.Google Scholar
Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1992. “Political Developments between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, edited by Tarling, Nicholas. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1993a. “Cash Cropping and Upstream-Downstream Tensions: The Case of Jambi in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief, edited by Reid, Anthony. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1993b. To Live as Brothers: Southeast Sumatra in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1995. “Upstreams and Downstreams in Early Modern Sumatra.” Historian 57(3):537–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1997. “Adapting to Political and Economic Change: Palembang in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries.” In The Last Stand of Asian Autonomies: Responses to Modernity in the Diverse States of Southeast Asia and Korea, 1750–1900, edited by Reid, Anthony. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Andaya, Leonard. 1982. A History of Malaysia. London and Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Andaya, Leonard Y. 2001. “Aceh's Contribution to Standards of Malayness.” Archipel 61:29–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (ANRI). Jakarta.Google Scholar
Barnard, Timothy P. 1998. “Multiple Centers of Authority: Society and Environment in Siak and Eastern Sumatra, 1674–1827.” Ph.D. diss., University of Hawai'i.Google Scholar
Barnard, Timothy P. 2001. “Texts, Raja Ismail, and Violence: Siak and the Transformation of Malay Identity in the Eighteenth Century.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(2):331–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barros, Joan [João] De. 1706. Held-dadige scheeps-togt van Alfonso d'Albuquerque, na de Roode Zee, in hetjaar 1506 (Courageous voyage of Alfonso d'Albuquerque to the Red Sea in 1506). Translated by Aa, Pieter van der. Leiden: [Pieter van der Aa?].Google Scholar
Bastin, John. 1961. Essays on Indonesian and Malayan History. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.Google Scholar
Bastin, John, ed. 1965. The British in West Sumatra (1685–1825): A Selection of Documents, Mainly from the East India Company Records Preserved in the India Office Library. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.Google Scholar
Bemmelen, R. W. Van. 1949. The Geology of Indonesia. The Hague: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Benda-Beckmann, Franz Von, and Benda-Beckmann, Keebet Von. 1985. “Transformation and Change in Minangkabau.” In Change and Continuity in Minangkabau: Local, Regional, and Historical Perspectives on West Sumatra, edited by Thomas, Lynn L. and Benda-Beckmann, Franz von. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies.Google Scholar
Bentley, G. Carter. 1986. “Indigenous States of Southeast Asia.” Annual Review of Anthropology 15:275–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwood, Evelyn. 2001. “Representing Women: The Politics of Minangkabau Adat Writings.” Journal of Asian Studies 60(1):125–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blussé, Leonard. 1999. “Chinese Century: The Eighteenth Century in the China Sea Region.” Archipel 58:107–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouwstoffen. 1895. Bouwstoffen voor de geschiedenis der Nederlanders in den Maleischen archipel (Materials for the history of Dutchmen in the Malay Archipelago). Edited by P. A. Tiele and J. E. Heeres. 3 vols. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Boxer, C. R. 1969. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825. London: Hutchinson.Google Scholar
Bronson, Bennet. 1977. “Exchange at the Upstream and Downstream Ends: Notes toward a Functional Model of the Coastal State in Southeast Asia.” In Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History, and Ethnography, edited by Hutterer, Karl L.. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Carneiro, Robert L. 1970. “A Theory of the Origin of the State.” Science 169(3947):733–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casparis, J. G. De. 1983. India and Maritime South East Asia: A Lasting Relationship. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya.Google Scholar
Charras, Muriel, and Pain, Marc. 1993. “Phase Two: The Agricultural Colonization of the Province of South Sumatra.” In Spontaneous Settlements in Indonesia, Agricultural Pioneers in Southern Sumatra/Migrations spontanées en Indonésie: La colonisation agricole du sud de Sumatra. Paris: LASEMA-CNRS; Bondy: ORSTOM; Jakarta: Departement Transmigrasi.Google Scholar
Christaller, W. 1933. Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland (Central places in south Germany). Jena: Fischer.Google Scholar
Claessen, Henri J. M., and Skalník, Peter. 1978. “The Early State: Models and Reality.” In The Early State. The Hague, Paris, and New York: Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claessen, Henri J. M., and Velde, Pieter Van De. 1985. “Sociopolitical Evolution as Complex Interaction.” In Development and Decline: The Evolution of Sociopolitical Organization, edited by Claessen, Henri J. M., Velde, Pieter van de, and Estellie Smith, M.. South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey.Google Scholar
Claessen, Henri J. M., and Velde, Pieter Van De. 1991. “Introduction.” In Early State Economics. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Collet, Octave J. A. 1925. Terres et peuples de Sumatra (Lands and peoples of Sumatra). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Colombijn, Freek. 2002. “Hoe Nederlanders in Sumatra aan de weg timmerden: De ontwikkeling van het wegennet op Midden-Sumatra, 1600–1870” (Dutch work in Sumatra: The development of the road network in Central Sumatra, 1600–1870). In Macht en majesteit: Opstellen voor Cees Passeur (Power and majesty: Essays for Cees Fasseur), edited by Thomas Lindblad, J. and Molen, Willem van der. Leiden: Universiteit Leiden, Opleiding Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië.Google Scholar
Corpus. 1931–1955. Corpus diplomaticum Neerlando-Indicum: Verzameling van politieke contracten en verdere verdragen door Nederlanders in het Oosten gesloten, van privilege brieven aan hen verleend (Corpus of Dutch-Indonesian diplomatic agreements: A collection of political contracts and other treaties concluded by the Dutch in the East and of privileges granted to them). Edited by J. E. Heeres and F. W. Stapel. 6 vols. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Dagh-register. 1893–1913. Dagh-register gehouden int Casteel Batavia vantpasserende daer ter plaetse als over geheel Nederlandts-India (Journal kept in Fort Batavia about everything that happened there and throughout the Dutch Indies). Edited by J. E. Heeres, J. V. van der Chijs, J. de Hullu, F. de Haan, H. T. Colenbrander, and W. Fruin-Mees. 31 vols. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff; Batavia: Landsdrukkerij; Batavia: Kolff.Google Scholar
Day, Tony, and Reynolds, Craig J.. 2000. “Cosmologies, Truth Regimes, and the State in Southeast Asia.” Modern Asian Studies 34(1):1–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobbin, Christine. 1983. Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy: Central Sumatra, 1784–1847. London and Malmö: Curzon.Google Scholar
Drakard, Jane. 1999. A Kingdom of Words: Language and Power in Sumatra. Kuala Lumpur and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eckholm, Kasja. 1977. “External Exchange and the Transformation of Central African Social Systems.” In The Evolution of Social Systems: Proceedings of a Meeting of the Research Seminar in Archaeology and Related Subjects Held at the Institute of Archaeology, London University, edited by Friedman, J. and Rowlands, M. J.. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Evers, Hans-Dieter, and Korff, Rüdiger. 2000. Southeast Asian Urbanism: The Meaning and Power of Social Space. Hamburg: Lit.Google Scholar
Evers, Hans-Dieter, and Schiel, Tilman. 1988. Strategische Gruppen: Vergleichende Studien zu Staat, Bürokratie, und Klassenbildung in der dritten Welt (Strategie groups: Comparative studies of state, bureaucracy, and class formation in the Third World). Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.Google Scholar
Ferrand, Gabriel, ed. 1914. Relations de voyages et textes géographiques Arabes, Persans et Turks relatifs a l'extrême-orient du viiie au xviiie siècles (Arabian, Persian, and Turkish travelogues and geographical texts about the Far East from the eighth to eighteenth centuries). Vol. 2. Paris: Ernest Leroux.Google Scholar
Frank, Andre Gunder. 1998. ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, Jonathan. 1979. System, Structure, and Contradiction: The Evolution of “Asiatic” Social Formations. Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark.Google Scholar
Furukawa, Hisao. 1994. Coastal Wetlands of Indonesia: Environment, Subsistence, and Exploitation. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press.Google Scholar
Galizia, Michele. 1995. “Verkehrserschliessung und räumliche Gliederung— Ursprung und Struktur einer Region im Bergland des südlichen Sumatra” (Opening up for traffic and spatial structuralization—Origin and structure of a mountain region in southern Sumatra). In Menschen und Märkte: Wirtschaftliche Integration im Hochland Südsumatras (People and markets: Economic integration in the South Sumatran highlands), edited by Marschall, W.. Berlin: Reimer.Google Scholar
Geertz, Clifford. 1980. Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Generale. 1960–1988. Generale missiven van gouverneurs-generaal en raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (General letters of the governor-general and the Indies Council to the Board of the Dutch East Indies Company). Edited by W. Ph. Coolhaas and J. van Goor. 9 vols. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Giddens, Anthony. 1985. The Nation-State and Violence. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Gommans, Jos. 1995. “Trade and Civilization around the Bay of Bengal, c. 1650–1800.” Itinerario 19(3):82–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goudie, Donald J., ed. and trans. 1989. Syair perang Siak: A Court Poem Presenting the State Policy of a Minangkabau Malay Royal Family in Exile. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.Google Scholar
Graves, Elizabeth E. 1981. The Minangkabau Response to Dutch Colonial Rule in the Nineteenth Century. Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project.Google Scholar
Gullick, J. M. 1988. Indigenous Political Systems of Western Malaya. Rev. ed. London and Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Athlone Press.Google Scholar
Hagesteijn, Renée. 1986. “Trading Places: Political Leadership in Southeast Asian Early States.” In Private Politics: A Multi-disciplinary Approach to “Big-Man” Systems, edited by Bakel, Martin A. van, Hagesteijn, Renée, and Velde, Pieter van de. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, D. G. E. 1955. A History of South-East Asia. New York: St. Martin's Press; London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Hall, Kenneth R. 1985. Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Kenneth R. 1995. “Upstream and Downstream Networking in Seventeenth-Century Banjarmasin.” In From Buckfast to Borneo: Essays Presented to Father Robert Nicheli on the 85th Anniversary of His Birth, 21 March 1995, edited by King, Victor T. and Horton, A. V. M.. Hull: University of Hull, Centre for South East Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Heine-Geldern, Robert. 1942. “Conceptions of State and Kingship in Southeast Asia.” Far Eastern Quarterly 2(1): 15–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ijzerman, J. W., Van Bemmelen, J. F., Koorders, S. H., and Bakhuis, L. A.. 1895. Dwars door Sumatra: Tocht van Padang naar Siak (Straight across Sumatra: From Padang to Siak). Haarlem: Erven F. Bohn; Batavia: Kolff.Google Scholar
Johns, A. H. 1993. “Political Authority in Islam: Some Reflections Relevant to Indonesia.” In The Making of an Islamic Political Discourse in Southeast Asia, edited by Reid, Anthony. Clayton: Monash University.Google Scholar
Jordaan, Roy E. 1999. “The Sailendras, the Status of the Ksatriya Theory, and the Development of Hindu-Javanese Temple Architecture.” Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde 155(2):210–43.Google Scholar
Kahin, Audrey. 1999. Rebellion to Integration: West Sumatra and the Indonesian Polity, 1926–1998. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar
Kahn, Joel. 1993. Constituting the Minangkabau: Peasants, Culture, and Modernity in Colonial Indonesia. Providence, R.I. and Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. 1976. “The Inderapura Sultanate: The Foundations of Its Rise and Decline, from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries.” Indonesia 21:64–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. 1977. The British West Sumatran Presidency, 1760–1785: Problems of Early Colonial Enterprise. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.Google Scholar
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. 1987. “Forces of Regional State Integration in the Western Archipelago, c. 1500–1700.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 18(1):24–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. 1990. “Introduction: An Overview.” In The Southeast Asian Port and Polity: Rise and Demise, edited by Kathirithamby-Wells, J. and Villiers, John. Singapore: Singapore University Press.Google Scholar
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. 1993. “Hulu-Hilir Unity and Conflict: Malay Statecraft in East Sumatra before the Mid-Nineteenth Century.” Archipel 45:77–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kathirithamby-Wells, J. 1997. “Siak and Its Changing Strategies for Survival, c. 1700–1870.” In The Last Stand of Asian Autonomies: Responses to Modernity in the Diverse States of Southeast Asia and Korea, 1750–1900, edited by Reid, Anthony. New York: St. Martin's Press; Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kathirithamby-Wells, J., and Hashim, Muhammad Yusoff. 1985. The Syair Mukomuko: Some Historical Aspects of a Nineteenth Century S urna tran Court Chronicle. Kuala Lumpur: Council of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.Google Scholar
Kielstra, E. B. 1920. De vestiging van het Nederlandsche gezag in den Indischen archipel (The establishment of Dutch authority in the Indonesian archipelago). Haarlem: Erven F. Bohn.Google Scholar
Knapen, Han. 2001. Forests of Fortune? The Environmental History of Southeast Borneo, 1600–1880. Leiden: KITLV Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koninklijk Instituut Voor Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde (KITLV). Leiden.Google Scholar
Kroeskamp, Hendrik. 1931. De westkust en Minangkabau (1665–1668) (The west coast and Minangkabau [1665–1668]). Utrecht: Schotanus and Jens.Google Scholar
Kulke, Hermann. 1993. Kings and Cults: State Formation and Legitimation in India and Southeast Asia. New Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar
Guan, Kwa Chong. 1998. “From Melaka to Singapura: The Evolution of an Emporium.” In Port Cities and Trade in Western Southeast Asia. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, Institute of Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Leach, E. R. 1977. Political Systems of Highland Burma: A Study of Kachin Social Structure. London: G. Bell, 1954. Reprint, London: Athlone.Google Scholar
Leeuw, W. J. A. De. 1926. Het Painansch Contract (The Painan treaty). Amsterdam: H. J. Paris.Google Scholar
Lewis, Dianne. 1995. Jan Compagnie in the Straits of Malacca, 1641–1795. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies.Google Scholar
Locher-Scholten, Elsbeth. 1994. Sumatraans-sultanaat en koloniale Staat: De relatie Djambi-Batavia (1830–1907) en het Nederlandse impérialisme (Sumatran sultanate and colonial state: The relationship of Jambi-Batavia [1830–1907] and Dutch imperialism). Leiden: KITLV Uitgeverij.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackerras, Colin. 1995. “Administration and Rebellion in East Asia.” In Eastern Asia: An Introductory History. 2d ed.Melbourne: Longman.Google Scholar
Manguin, Pierre-Yves. 2000. “Les cités-états de l'Asie du Sud-Est côtière: De l'ancienneté et de la permanence des formes urbaines” (The city-states of coastal Southeast Asia: On antiquity and permanence of urban forms). Bulletin de l'Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient 87(1):151–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsden, William. [1811] 1966. The History of Sumatra. 3d ed.Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Matheson, Virginia, and Andaya, Barbara Watson, eds. 1982. The Precious Gift (Tuhfat al-Nafis), by Ahmad, Raja Ali Haji Ibn. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Meilink-Roelofsz, Marie Antoinette Petronella. 1962. Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Miksic, John N. 1985. “Traditional Sumatran Trade.” Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient 74:423–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milner, A. C. 1982. Kerajaan: Malay Political Culture on the Eve of Colonial Rule. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Müller, S. 1837. Berigten over Sumatra (Reports on Sumatra). Amsterdam: Beijerinck.Google Scholar
Nagtegaal, Luc. 1996. Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680–1743. Leiden: KITLV Press.Google Scholar
Nas, Peter J. M. 1990. De stad in de Derde Wereld: Een inleiding tot de urbane antropologie en sociologie (The city in the Third World: An introduction to urban anthropology and sociology). Muiderberg: Coutinho.Google Scholar
Oki, Akira. 1986. “The River Trade in Central and South Sumatra in the Nineteenth Century.” In Environment, Agriculture, and Society in the Malay World, edited by Kato, Tsuyoshi, Lutfi, Muchtar, and Maeda, Narifumi. Kyoto: Kyoto University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Putten, Jan Van Der. 2001. His Word is the Truth: Haji Ibrahim's Letters and Other Writings. Leiden: Research School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies.Google Scholar
Raffles, Lady Sophia. [1830] 1991. Memoir of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. Oxford: University Press.Google Scholar
Reenen, Joke Van. 1996. Central Pillars of the House: Sisters, Wives, and Mothers in a Rural Community in Minangkabau, West Sumatra. Leiden: Research School CNWS.Google Scholar
Reid, Anthony. 1988. The Land below the Winds. Vol. 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Reid, Anthony. 1993. Expansion and Crisis. Vol. 2 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Reid, Anthony. 1997. “A New Phase of Commercial Expansion in Southeast Asia, 1760–1850.” In The Last Stand of Asian Autonomies: Responses to Modernity in the Diverse States of Southeast Asia and Korea, 1750–1900. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ricklefs, M. C. 1991. A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300. 2d ed.Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Ricklefs, M. C. 1993. War, Culture, and Economy in Java, 1677–1726: Asian and European Imperialism in the Early Kartasura Period. Sydney: Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Salmon, C. 1992. “Na Tian Piet et sa vision du monde malais dans les années 1890” (Na Tian Piet and his vision of the Malay world in the 1890s). In Le moment “sinomalais” de la litterature indonésienne (The Sino-Malay moment in Indonesian literature). Paris: Archipel.Google Scholar
Sandbukt, Oyvind. 1991. “Precolonial Populations and Polities in Lowland Sumatra: An Anthropological Perspective.” Kabar seberang 22:42–51.Google Scholar
Scholz, Ulrich. 1988. Agrargeographie von Sumatra: Eine Analyse der räumlichen Differenzierung der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion (Agricultural geography of Sumatra: An analysis of spatial differentiation in the agricultural production). Giessen: Geographischen Instituts der Justus Liebig-Universität.Google Scholar
Schulte Nordholt, Henk. 1996. The Spell of Power: A History ofBalinese Politics, 1650–1940. Leiden: KITLV Press.Google Scholar
Schulte Nordholt, Henk. 2000. Een staat van geweld (A state of violence). Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam.Google Scholar
Stapel, F. W. 1935. “Een verhandeling over het ontstaan van het Menangkabausche rijk en zijn adat” (Treaty on the birth of the Minangkabau state and its customs). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië 92:459–70.Google Scholar
Stuart-Fox, Martin. 1995. “Political Patterns in Southeast Asia.” In Eastern Asia: An Introductory History, edited by Mackerras, Colin. 2d ed.Melbourne: Longman.Google Scholar
Sutherland, Heather. 1995. “Believing is Seeing: Perspectives on Political Power and Economic Activity in the Malay World, 1700–1940.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26(1):133–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talens, Johan. 1999. Een feodale samenleving in koloniaal vaarwater: Staatsvorming, koloniale expansie, en economische onderontwikkeling in Banten, West Java (1600–1750) (A feudal society in colonial circumstances: State formation, colonial expansion, and economic underdevelopment in Banten, West Java [1600–1750]). Hilversum: Verloren.Google Scholar
Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja. 1985. Culture, Thought, and Social Action: An Anthropological Perspective. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, Nancy, and Thomas, Lynn L.. 1985. “Rethinking Matriliny: Decision-making and Sex Roles in Minangkabau.” In Change and Continuity in Minangkabau: Local, Regional, and Historical Perspectives on West Sumatra, edited by Thomas, Lynn L. and Benda-Beckmann, Franz von. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies.Google Scholar
Tarling, Nicholas. 1992. “The Establishment of the Colonial Régimes.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Abdullah, Taufik. 1996. “The Spread of Islam and Islamic Kingship.” In Indonesian Heritage: Early Modern History, edited by Reid, Anthony. Singapore: Didier Millet, Archipelago Press; Jakarta: Buku Antar Bangsa.Google Scholar
Tideman, J., with Sigar, P. F. L.. 1938. Djambi (Jambi). Amsterdam: Koninklijke Vereeniging Koloniaal Instituut.Google Scholar
Tooker, Deborah E. 1996. “Putting the Mandala in Its Place: A Practice-based Approach to the Spatialization of Power on the Southeast Asian ‘Periphery’—The Case of the Akha.” Journal of Asian Studies 55(2):323–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vellinga, Marcel. 2000. “Constituting Unity and Difference: The Meaning of Vernacular Houses in Minangkabau Village.” Ph.D. diss., Leiden University.Google Scholar
Verstappen, H. Th. 1973. A Geomorphological Reconaissance ofSumatra and Adjacent Islands (Indonesia). Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.Google Scholar
Vos, Reinout. 1993. Gentle Janus, Merchant Prince: The VOC and the Tightrope of Diplomacy in the Malay World, 1740–1800. Leiden: KITLV Press.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. 1958. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. Translated and edited by Gerth, H. H. and Wright Mills, C.. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wheatley, Paul. 1983. Nagara and Commandery: Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Traditions. Chicago: University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Whitten, Anthony J., Damanik, Sengli J., Anwar, Jazanul, and Hisyam, Nazruddin. 1987. The Ecology of Sumatra. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.Google Scholar
Wisseman Christie, Jan. 1995. “State Formation in Early Maritime Southeast Asia: A Consideration of the Theories and the Data.” Bijdragen tot de taal-, land-evolkenkunde 151(2):235–88.Google Scholar
Withington, William A. 1985. “The Cities of Sumatra in 1980.” Indonesia 38:15–30.Google Scholar
Woelders, M. O. 1975. Het sultanaat Palembang, 1811–1825 (The Palembang sultanate, 1811–25). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Wolf, Eric R. 1982. Europe and the People without History. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wolfram-Seifert, Ursel. 1992. Faktoren der Urbanisierung und die Entwicklung regionaler Städtesysteme auf Sumatra: Analyse der Siedlungsstrukturen in den Provinzen Nord, West, und Süd-Sumatra (Indonesien) (Factors of the urbanization and the development of a regional urban pattern in Sumatra: Analysis of the settlement structures in north, west, and south Sumatra [Indonesia]). Hamburg: Institut für Geographie der Universität Hamburg.Google Scholar
Wolters, O. W. 1967. Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of Srivijaya. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Wolters, O. W. 1999. History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives. Rev. ed. Ithaca: Cornell University, Southeast Asia Program Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Kenneth R. 1982. “Minangkabau Authority Patterns and the Effects of Dutch Rule.” In The Malay-Islamic World of Sumatra: Studies in Polities and Culture, edited by Maxwell, John. Clayton: Monash University.Google Scholar