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A Muslim Vision for the Chinese Nation: Chinese Pilgrimage Missions to Mecca during World War II

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 June 2011

Yufeng Mao
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Abstract

In the late 1930s, three groups of Sino-Muslims went on hajj trips to Mecca. Two of them represented the Republic of China, while one represented the puppet government in Japanese-occupied North China. Reflecting the political importance of the Muslim population in the Sino-Japanese struggle, each group engaged in propaganda efforts for its government. However the Sino-Muslims who participated in these missions were not merely the passive pawns of Chinese authorities. Rather, archival material and published sources in Chinese and Arabic show that Sino-Muslims actively used these missions to advance a vision of the Chinese nation in which Muslims would play an important role in domestic and foreign affairs. This vision was based on a particular understanding of global politics which allowed Sino-Muslim elites to reconcile the transnational characteristic of Islam with loyalty to the territorially bound “Chinese nation.”

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 70 , Issue 2 , May 2011 , pp. 373 - 395
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2011

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References

Abbreviations

CMDNE. Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan [Chinese Muslim Delegation to the Near East]Google Scholar
DANGSHIGUAN GMD Archives, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.Google Scholar
DIARY Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan riji [Diary of the Chinese Muslim delegation to the Near East]. 1943. Chongqing: Zhongguo wenhua fuwushe.Google Scholar
DIARY Repr. 1997 Wang Erli. 1997, ed. Zhongguo huijiao jindong youhao fangwen riji [The Diaries of the Chinese Muslim Goodwill Mission to the Middle East] Kuala Lumpur: n.p.Google Scholar
GUOSHIGUAN Academia Historica, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.Google Scholar
MTAC Mongolian-Tibetan Affairs Committee.Google Scholar
NANJING Number Two Historical Archives, Nanjing, PRC.Google Scholar

Archival

Central Broadcasting Station. July 13, 1939. [Memorandum to the Supreme National Defense Council]. GUOSHIGUAN.Google Scholar
Central Propaganda Department. 1939. [Memorandum to the Department of Administration]. GUOSHIGUAN: 128-2040Google Scholar
Chinese Consulate in Egypt. January 24, 1939. [Cable to the Foreign Ministry]; GUOSHIGUAN.Google Scholar
CMDNE. 1939. [Memorandum to Chiang Kai-shek, Chairman of the Military Commission, received on May 11, 1939]; GUOSHIGUAN.Google Scholar
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He, Yaozu. August 22, 1934. [Cable to Jiang Jieshi [Chiang Kai-shek]]; GUOSHIGUAN.Google Scholar
Ma, Jian and Pang, Shiqian. February 1939. [Memorandum to the Foreign Ministry]; GUOSHIGUAN.Google Scholar
Office of the Supreme National Defense Council. May 20, 1939. [On “General Report of Chinese Muslim Near East Delegation”]; DANGSHIGUAN.Google Scholar
Sun, Shengwu. January 2, 1939. [Cable to Kong Xiangxi]; GUOSHIGUAN.Google Scholar
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Published Sources

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CMDNE. 1943. Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan riji [Diary of the Chinese Muslim delegation to the Near East]. Chongqing: Zhongguo Wenhua Fuwushe.Google Scholar
CMDNE. 1943. “Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan zong baogaoshu” [The general report of the Chinese Muslim delegation to the Near East]. In DIARY.Google Scholar
CMDNE. 1943. “Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan xuanyan” [Announcement of the Chinese Muslim delegation to the Near East]. In DIARY.Google Scholar
Gu, Jiegang. 1936. “Huijao wenhua yundong” [Muslim cultural movement]. Yugong 7 (4) (November 20): 187–189.Google Scholar
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Ma, Songting. 1936. “Zhongguo huijiao yu chengda shifan xuexiao” [Chinese Islam and the Chengda Teachers School]. Yugong 5 (11) (Aug 1):1–14.Google Scholar
MTAC. 1914. Huiwen baihua bao [Arabic-Chinese newspaper], January 11.Google Scholar
Pang, Shiqian. 2005. “Aiji jiunian” [Nine years in Egypt]. Qingzhen dadian [Islamic Classics]. Vol. 20. Hefei: Huangshan shushe.Google Scholar
Quan, Daoyun. [1961] 1997. “Dao wangyou” [Mourning a diseased friend]. In DIARY REPR. 1997: 511–515.Google Scholar
Sun, Shengwu. [1961] 1997. “Wang zengshan xiansheng zhuanlue” [A brief biography of Mr. Wang Zengshan]. DIARY REPR. 1997: 507–509.Google Scholar
Sun, Shengwu. Huijiao luncun [Opinions related to Muslims] 1963. Taipei: Zhonghua wenhua chuban shiyeshe.Google Scholar
Tang, Yichen. 1939. “Huabei huijiao chaojintuan shendi xunli ji” [On the tour to Mecca by northern China hajj delegation]. Huijiao 2 (1).Google Scholar
Tie, Weiying and Li, Xuezhong. 1995. Zhongguo musilin chaojin jishi [History of Chinese Muslim pilgrimage]. Yinchuan: Ningxia renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Wang, Mengyang. 1929. “Huijiao yu zhongguo” [Islam and China]. Yuehua 1 (1): 1.Google Scholar
Wang, Tingzhi. [1908] 1988. “Huijiao yu wushidao” [Islam and Bushido]. Xinghuipian 1 (1): 36–39.Google Scholar
Wang, Zengshan. May 14, 1938. “Jiang Jieshi chaofa zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan zai aiji xuanchuan jingguo baogao dian” [Jiang Jieshi's copy of CMDNE's cable on propaganda efforts in Egypt]. In Zhonghua minguo shi dangan ziliao huibian [Collection of archival material on the Republican history]. Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe: 702–703.Google Scholar
Yu, Zhengui. 1996. Zhougguo lidai zhengquan yu yisilanjiao [Islam and China's successive regimes]. Yinchuan: Ningxia renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, Zhenwu. 1936. Sanshi nianlai zhi zhongguo huijiao wenhua gaikuang [An overview of Chinese Muslim culture in the past 30 years]. Yugong (5) 11:15–28.Google Scholar
Zhongguo huijiao xiehui [Chinese Islamic Association]. 1951. Zhongguo huijiao xiehui gongzuo jiyao [Highlights of the work of the Chinese Islamic Association]. Taipei: Zhongguo huijiao xiehui.Google Scholar
Ando, Junichiro. 2003. “Japan's Hui Muslim Campaigns in China from 1910s to 1945: An Introductory Survey.” Nihon chuto gakkai nenpo (2): 21–38.Google Scholar
Atwill, David. 2005. The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China, 1856-1873. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benite, Zvi Ben Dor. 2008. “‘Nine Years in Egypt’: The Chinese at al-Azhar University.” Hagar, Studies in Culture, Polity and Identities 8 (1): 105–128.Google Scholar
Brown, Melissa. 1996. Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Chinese Muslim Near-East Goodwill Mission (CMDNE). 1938. The Call to World Muslims from China—with Compliments of Chinese Muslim Near-East Goodwill Mission. N.P.Google Scholar
Crossley, Pamela. 1990. Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 1993. “De-Constructing the Chinese Nation.” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 30 (July): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 1995. Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 2009. The Global and Regional in China's Nation-Formation. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 1997. “Transnationalism and the Predicament of Sovereignty: China, 1900–1945.” American Historical Review 102 (4): 1030–1051.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esenbel, Selcuk. 2004. “Japan's Global Claim to Asia and the World of Islam: Transnational Nationalism and World Power, 1900-1945.” American Historical Review. 109 (4): 1140–1170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, John. 1995. “The Nationless State: The Search for a Nation in Modern Chinese Nationalism.” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33:75–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillette, Maris Boyd. 2000. Between Mecca and Beijing: Modernization and Consumption among Urban Chinese. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Gladney, Dru. 1991. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Gladney, Dru., ed. 1998. Making Majorities: Composing the Nation in Japan, China, Korea, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the United States. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Sandra. 1999. “Building Solidarity: The Process for Metropolitan Chinese Muslims, 1912-1949.” PhD diss., University of Arizona.Google Scholar
Harrell, Stevan. 1995. Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Hostetler, Laura. 2001. Qing Colonial Enterprise: Ethnography and Cartography in Early Modern China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Justin. 2008. “How Chinese Turkestan Became Chinese: Visulizing Zhang Zhizhong's Tianshan Pictorial and Xinjiang Youth Song and Dance Troupe.” Journal of Asian Studies 67(2): 545–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karl, Rebecca. 2002. Staging the World: Chinese Nationalism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Kaup, Katherine. 2000. Creating the Zhuang: Ethnic Politics in China. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publisher.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurzman, Charles. 2002. Modernist Islam, 1840-1940. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Leibold, James. 2007. Reconfiguring the Chinese Nation: How the Qing Frontier and Its Indigenes Became Chinese. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 1997. Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 1996. “Hyphenated Chinese: Sino-Muslim Identity in Modern China.” In Remapping China: Fissures in Historical Terrain eds. Hershatter, Gail et al. , 97–112. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 2002. “How Many Minzu in a Nation? Modern Travellers Meet China's Frontier Peoples.” Inner Asia 4: 113–130.Google Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 2006. “A Fierce and Brutal People: On Islam and Muslims in Qing Law.” In Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China, eds. Crossley, Pamely, Siu, Helen and Sutton, Donald, 83–110. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Liu, Xiaoyuan. 2006. Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911–1950. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Ma Haiyun. 2008. “Fanhui or Huifan? Hanhui or Huimin?: Salar Ethnic Identification and Qing Administrative Transformation in Eighteenth-Century Gansu.” Late Imperial China (29) 2: 1–36.Google Scholar
Ma, Kainan Yusuf. 1988. “Foreign Relations between the Republic of China and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: The Process of Establishing and Sustaining Relationships (1936-1986).” PhD diss., University of Miami.Google Scholar
Mao, Yufeng. 2007. “Between the Nation and the Umma: Sino-Muslims in Chinese Nation-Building, 1906-1956.” PhD. diss., George Washington University.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, Masumi. 2003. “Sino-Muslims’ Identity and Thoughts during the Anti-Japanese War: Impact of the Middle East.” Nihon chuto gakkai nenpo 18 (2): 39–54.Google Scholar
Millward, James. 2007. Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn. 1998. The Last Emperors: A Social History of the Qing Imperial Institutions. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Rhoads, Edward. 2000. Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, Laurence. 1971. Ku Chieh-Kang and China's New History: Nationalism and the Quest for Alternative Traditions. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tang, Xiaobing. 1996. Global Space and the Nationalist Discourse of Modernity: The Historical Thinking of Liang Qichao. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Tuttle, Gray. 2004. Tibetan Buddhists in the Making of Modern China. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Al-Baatha Al-Islamiya a-Siniya [Chinese Islamic Delegation]. 1938. “Al-baatha al-islamiya a-siniya bayanuha ila al-misriyina” [Announcement to Egyptians from Chinese Islamic Delegation]. Al-Ahram, May 10.Google Scholar
Baathatu al-ihawu al-islamiya as-siniya [Chinese Islamic delegation to the Near East (CMDNE)]. 1938. Risala baathatu al-ahawu al-islamiya a-siniya ila al-alam al-islamiya [Letter from Chinese Islamic Association Delegation to the Islamic World: on Islam and Muslims in China]. Cairo: Eisa elbabi behalabi wa sharakahu.Google Scholar
Makin, Muhammad. 1935. Kitab al-hiwar [Analects of Confucius]. Cairo: Salafiya Press.Google Scholar
Anonymous. 1939. “Zhongguo huijiao chaojintuan zhi shouhuo” [Fruits of the Chinese hajj delegation]. Yuehua 11 (4–6).Google Scholar
Bao, Tingliang. [1908] 1988. “Quan tongren fuxing jiaoyu zhi zeren shuo” [On encouraging colleagues to revive education]. Xinghuipian [Awakening the Hui] 1 (1):26–31.Google Scholar
CMDNE. 1943. Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan riji [Diary of the Chinese Muslim delegation to the Near East]. Chongqing: Zhongguo Wenhua Fuwushe.Google Scholar
CMDNE. 1943. “Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan zong baogaoshu” [The general report of the Chinese Muslim delegation to the Near East]. In DIARY.Google Scholar
CMDNE. 1943. “Zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan xuanyan” [Announcement of the Chinese Muslim delegation to the Near East]. In DIARY.Google Scholar
Gu, Jiegang. 1936. “Huijao wenhua yundong” [Muslim cultural movement]. Yugong 7 (4) (November 20): 187–189.Google Scholar
Jiang, Chun and Guo, Yingde. 2000. Zhonga guanxi shi [A history of Sino-Arab relations]. Beijing: Jingji ribao chubanshe.Google Scholar
Jin, Jitang. 1936. “Huijiao minzu shuo” [On the Muslim nationality]. Yugong 5 (11) (Aug 1): 29–39.Google Scholar
Ma, Songting. 1936. “Zhongguo huijiao yu chengda shifan xuexiao” [Chinese Islam and the Chengda Teachers School]. Yugong 5 (11) (Aug 1):1–14.Google Scholar
MTAC. 1914. Huiwen baihua bao [Arabic-Chinese newspaper], January 11.Google Scholar
Pang, Shiqian. 2005. “Aiji jiunian” [Nine years in Egypt]. Qingzhen dadian [Islamic Classics]. Vol. 20. Hefei: Huangshan shushe.Google Scholar
Quan, Daoyun. [1961] 1997. “Dao wangyou” [Mourning a diseased friend]. In DIARY REPR. 1997: 511–515.Google Scholar
Sun, Shengwu. [1961] 1997. “Wang zengshan xiansheng zhuanlue” [A brief biography of Mr. Wang Zengshan]. DIARY REPR. 1997: 507–509.Google Scholar
Sun, Shengwu. Huijiao luncun [Opinions related to Muslims] 1963. Taipei: Zhonghua wenhua chuban shiyeshe.Google Scholar
Tang, Yichen. 1939. “Huabei huijiao chaojintuan shendi xunli ji” [On the tour to Mecca by northern China hajj delegation]. Huijiao 2 (1).Google Scholar
Tie, Weiying and Li, Xuezhong. 1995. Zhongguo musilin chaojin jishi [History of Chinese Muslim pilgrimage]. Yinchuan: Ningxia renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Wang, Mengyang. 1929. “Huijiao yu zhongguo” [Islam and China]. Yuehua 1 (1): 1.Google Scholar
Wang, Tingzhi. [1908] 1988. “Huijiao yu wushidao” [Islam and Bushido]. Xinghuipian 1 (1): 36–39.Google Scholar
Wang, Zengshan. May 14, 1938. “Jiang Jieshi chaofa zhongguo huijiao jindong fangwentuan zai aiji xuanchuan jingguo baogao dian” [Jiang Jieshi's copy of CMDNE's cable on propaganda efforts in Egypt]. In Zhonghua minguo shi dangan ziliao huibian [Collection of archival material on the Republican history]. Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe: 702–703.Google Scholar
Yu, Zhengui. 1996. Zhougguo lidai zhengquan yu yisilanjiao [Islam and China's successive regimes]. Yinchuan: Ningxia renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, Zhenwu. 1936. Sanshi nianlai zhi zhongguo huijiao wenhua gaikuang [An overview of Chinese Muslim culture in the past 30 years]. Yugong (5) 11:15–28.Google Scholar
Zhongguo huijiao xiehui [Chinese Islamic Association]. 1951. Zhongguo huijiao xiehui gongzuo jiyao [Highlights of the work of the Chinese Islamic Association]. Taipei: Zhongguo huijiao xiehui.Google Scholar
Ando, Junichiro. 2003. “Japan's Hui Muslim Campaigns in China from 1910s to 1945: An Introductory Survey.” Nihon chuto gakkai nenpo (2): 21–38.Google Scholar
Atwill, David. 2005. The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China, 1856-1873. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benite, Zvi Ben Dor. 2008. “‘Nine Years in Egypt’: The Chinese at al-Azhar University.” Hagar, Studies in Culture, Polity and Identities 8 (1): 105–128.Google Scholar
Brown, Melissa. 1996. Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Chinese Muslim Near-East Goodwill Mission (CMDNE). 1938. The Call to World Muslims from China—with Compliments of Chinese Muslim Near-East Goodwill Mission. N.P.Google Scholar
Crossley, Pamela. 1990. Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 1993. “De-Constructing the Chinese Nation.” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 30 (July): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 1995. Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 2009. The Global and Regional in China's Nation-Formation. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Duara, Prasenjit. 1997. “Transnationalism and the Predicament of Sovereignty: China, 1900–1945.” American Historical Review 102 (4): 1030–1051.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esenbel, Selcuk. 2004. “Japan's Global Claim to Asia and the World of Islam: Transnational Nationalism and World Power, 1900-1945.” American Historical Review. 109 (4): 1140–1170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, John. 1995. “The Nationless State: The Search for a Nation in Modern Chinese Nationalism.” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33:75–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillette, Maris Boyd. 2000. Between Mecca and Beijing: Modernization and Consumption among Urban Chinese. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Gladney, Dru. 1991. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Gladney, Dru., ed. 1998. Making Majorities: Composing the Nation in Japan, China, Korea, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the United States. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Sandra. 1999. “Building Solidarity: The Process for Metropolitan Chinese Muslims, 1912-1949.” PhD diss., University of Arizona.Google Scholar
Harrell, Stevan. 1995. Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Hostetler, Laura. 2001. Qing Colonial Enterprise: Ethnography and Cartography in Early Modern China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Justin. 2008. “How Chinese Turkestan Became Chinese: Visulizing Zhang Zhizhong's Tianshan Pictorial and Xinjiang Youth Song and Dance Troupe.” Journal of Asian Studies 67(2): 545–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karl, Rebecca. 2002. Staging the World: Chinese Nationalism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Kaup, Katherine. 2000. Creating the Zhuang: Ethnic Politics in China. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publisher.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurzman, Charles. 2002. Modernist Islam, 1840-1940. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Leibold, James. 2007. Reconfiguring the Chinese Nation: How the Qing Frontier and Its Indigenes Became Chinese. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 1997. Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 1996. “Hyphenated Chinese: Sino-Muslim Identity in Modern China.” In Remapping China: Fissures in Historical Terrain eds. Hershatter, Gail et al. , 97–112. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 2002. “How Many Minzu in a Nation? Modern Travellers Meet China's Frontier Peoples.” Inner Asia 4: 113–130.Google Scholar
Lipman, Jonathan. 2006. “A Fierce and Brutal People: On Islam and Muslims in Qing Law.” In Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China, eds. Crossley, Pamely, Siu, Helen and Sutton, Donald, 83–110. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Liu, Xiaoyuan. 2006. Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911–1950. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Ma Haiyun. 2008. “Fanhui or Huifan? Hanhui or Huimin?: Salar Ethnic Identification and Qing Administrative Transformation in Eighteenth-Century Gansu.” Late Imperial China (29) 2: 1–36.Google Scholar
Ma, Kainan Yusuf. 1988. “Foreign Relations between the Republic of China and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: The Process of Establishing and Sustaining Relationships (1936-1986).” PhD diss., University of Miami.Google Scholar
Mao, Yufeng. 2007. “Between the Nation and the Umma: Sino-Muslims in Chinese Nation-Building, 1906-1956.” PhD. diss., George Washington University.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, Masumi. 2003. “Sino-Muslims’ Identity and Thoughts during the Anti-Japanese War: Impact of the Middle East.” Nihon chuto gakkai nenpo 18 (2): 39–54.Google Scholar
Millward, James. 2007. Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn. 1998. The Last Emperors: A Social History of the Qing Imperial Institutions. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Rhoads, Edward. 2000. Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, Laurence. 1971. Ku Chieh-Kang and China's New History: Nationalism and the Quest for Alternative Traditions. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tang, Xiaobing. 1996. Global Space and the Nationalist Discourse of Modernity: The Historical Thinking of Liang Qichao. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Tuttle, Gray. 2004. Tibetan Buddhists in the Making of Modern China. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar