Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T05:56:25.578Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Base Cultures: Sex Workers and Servicemen in Occupied Japan

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 August 2009

Sarah Kovner
Get access

Abstract

This article examines how the bodies of Japanese women became a key site of political and cultural contestation during the Allied occupation. The sale of sex, once legally recognized and regulated, became a conspicuous symbol of postwar chaos. Ostracizing sex workers who catered to servicemen provided a means to display an abiding nationalism without directly confronting the occupiers. But these women were also indispensable in the economy of military base cities. Journalists and social critics sought to discern or impose order by devising elaborate taxonomies, cartographies, health regimes, and moral codes. Sex workers were active participants in this process, but their personal testimonies show how their lives defied categorization. When the Diet finally intervened with the 1956 Prostitution Prevention Law, it was merely the culmination of a long process involving every segment of Japanese society.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 68 , Issue 3 , August 2009 , pp. 777 - 804
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1947a. “Monthly Occupation Intelligence Summary No. 11—From Month of February 1947.” AWM 114/130/2, March 8.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1947b. “Prevention and Control of Venereal Disease.” AWM 114/267/6/17, December 19.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1949. “Treatment of V.D. at Japanese Hospital, Kure.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, August 3.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950a. “Petition.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, November 18.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950b. “Special Class of Women Calling Our Attention.” Chugoku Shimbun. AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, November 22.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950c. “Procuring Servicemen for Prostitutes and Prostitution in Iwakuni.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, December 6.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950d. “S/L.D.R. F. C. Bibby, to Assistant Provost Marshal.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, December 12.Google Scholar
Columbia University Libraries. 1948. “Extract from Publications Analysis #221.” Supreme Command for the Allied Forces (SCAP), Military Intelligence Section, General Staff Allied Translator and Interpreter Division, November 9.Google Scholar
Prange Collection. 1946. “Y. Yamamoto (a précis of) News Matter or Table of Contents, Shūshoku ga ari shitugyō gohyakuman [Five million had jobs and lost them]. Fujin Asahi, March. Unpublished.Google Scholar
Prange Collection. 1948. Ōtani Susumu. Ikite iru: Ueno chikadō no jittai [Living: The true conditions of Ueno's subterranean tunnels]. Tokyo: Sengo Nihon Shakai Settaishi.Google Scholar
Sasebo Municipal Archives. 1964. Letter, Mayor Kazuzō Tsuji to Sasebo Naval Base Chief Commander A. F. Farwell.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). 1946a. RG 331. “SCAPIN 642.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, January 21.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1946b. “Publications Analysis #8.” SCAP, Civil Information and Education Section, Media Analysis Division, February 2.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1946c. “Yoshida Sumiko to Colonel Allen.” Trans. SCAP. SCAP, Civil Information and Education Section, Information Division, Policy and Program Branch, Women's Affairs Activities, 1945–50, October 15.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1947. “Sakamoto Mitsuko to General Douglas MacArthur.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, February 7.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1949a. “Request that Owners of Houses of Ill-Repute Be Ostracized from Society.” SCAP, Preventive Medicine Division. Abolition of Licensed Prostitution, no. 1 (1945–48), no. 2 (1949–50), February 1.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1949b. “What a Swan Would Be.” SCAP, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Public Safety Division. Police Branch. Subject File, 1945–52, Pistols to Prostitution, Box 334, May 15.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950a. “Tanaka Seiko to General Headquarters.” (Translation Digest). SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, received May 26.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950b. “Report on the Enforcement of Prostitute and Etc. Control Ordinance.” SCAP, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Public Safety Division, Police Branch, Subject File, 1945–52, Pistols to Prostitution, Box 334, July 19.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950c. “John W. Rouk. Venereal Disease Control.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, November 24.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950d. “An Appeal to All Young Girls” [Wakai josei no minasan ni onegai]. Sasebo Morals Purification Committee. SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventative Medicine Division, December 1.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950e. “By-Law against Solicitation Passed in Sasebo.” Memorandum to Glover. SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventative Medicine Division, December 15.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1951. “Memorandum from Mayor's Office of Sasebo.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventative Medicine Division, January 5.Google Scholar
United States Strategic Bombing Survey. 1946. “Summary Report” (Pacific War). Washington, D.C., July 1.Google Scholar
United States Strategic Bombing Survey. 1947. “The Effects of Bombing on Health and Medical Services in Japan.” Medical Division, June.Google Scholar
Baishun taisaiku shingikai, , ed. 1959. Baishun taisaku no genkyō [Status of prostitution countermeasures]. Tokyo: Okurashō Insatsu Kyoku.Google Scholar
Briggs, Laura. 2002. Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Dower, John W. 1999. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar
Frühstück, Sabine. 2003. Colonizing Sex: Sexology and Social Control in Modern Japan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 1997a. “The Licensed Prostitution System and the Prostitution Abolition Movement in Modern Japan.” Trans. Kerry Ross. positions 5 (1): 135–70.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 1997b. Sei no rekishigaku [The historiography of sex]. Tokyo: Fuji Shuppan.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 2003. Higashi Ajia reisen to jendaa [The East Asian cold war and gender]. Self-published report, Osaka.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 2006a. “Japanese Feminism and Commercialized Sex: The Union of Militarism and Prohibitionism.” Social Science Japan Journal 9 (2): 33–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 2006b. “The U.S.–Japan Military Alliance and Local Prostitution Ordinances.” Trans. Shinnosuke Nakamura. Contemporary Women's History in Asia 2:124–48.Google Scholar
Fujin shinpū. 1953a. “Dō shitara seibyō wa yobō dekiru ka” [What can we do to protect against venereal disease?]. December 1. Repr. of 1952–57 issues with commentary by Fukae Masako. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1989.Google Scholar
Fujin shinpū.. 1953b. “Shidō kenshin no tōkei o miru” [Looking at the statistics on guided medical examinations]. October 1.Google Scholar
Fujino, Yutaka. 2001. Sei no kokka kanri: baibaishun no kin gendaishi [State management of sex: The modern and contemporary history of prostitution]. Tokyo: Fuji Shuppan.Google Scholar
Garon, Sheldon. 1997. Molding Japanese Minds: The State in Everyday Life. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gendai Yōgo No Kiso Chishiki [Basic knowledge of contemporary terms]. 1949. Tokyo: Jiyū Kokuminsha.Google Scholar
Goedde, Petra. 2003. GIs and Germans: Culture, Gender and Foreign Relations, 1945–1949. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Henson, Maria Rosa. 1996. Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny. Quezon City: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.Google Scholar
Hirata, Tadamichi, and Morita, Shōheji. 1953. Gaishō to kodomotchi: toku ni Yokosukashi no genjo no bunseki [Streetwalkers and children: A special analysis of current conditions of base town Yoskosuka]. Tokyo: Keio Gijuku Daigaku Shakai Jigyō Kenkūkai.Google Scholar
Hirai Kazuko, . 2001. Beigun kichi baibaishun to han “baishun” undō: Gotemba no bai [American military-base prostitution and the anti-prostitution movement: The case of Gotemba]. Joseishigaku 11:1–13.Google Scholar
Hirai Kazuko, . 2004. “Nihon senryō o ‘sei’ de minaosu” [Reexamining the occupation of Japan as “sex”]. Nihonshi kenkyū 500:107–30.Google Scholar
Höhn, Maria. 2002. GIs and Frauleins: The German-American Encounter in 1950s West Germany. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Honda, Mitsurō, ed. 1979. Furusato no omoide shashinshū: Meiji Taishō Shōwa Sasebo [A reminescent photograph collection of hometowns: Meiji Taishō Shōwa Sasebo]. Tokyo: Kokusho Kankōkai.Google Scholar
Howard, Keith, ed. 1995. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women. London: Cassell.Google Scholar
Hume, Bill. 1953. Babysan: A Private Look at the Japanese Occupation. Tokyo: Kasuga Boeki.Google Scholar
Inomata, Kōzō, et al. 1953. Kichi Nihon: ushinawareyuiku sokoku no sugata [Base Japan: The disappearing figure of the homeland]. Tokyo: Wakōsha.Google Scholar
Journal of Social Hygiene. 1949. “State of the Union regarding Commercialized Prostitution.” 35 (4): 146–76.Google Scholar
Kanai, San'kichi. 1952. “Onna ni yashinawareru Nihon—sono shukuzu wa Sasebo” [Japan that is fed by women—its epitome is Sasebo]. Tōyō Keizai Shinpō Bessatsu, July.Google Scholar
Kanzaki, Kiyoshi. 1949a. “Ori no nai dōbutsuen” [Zoo without a cage]. Josei Kaizō, April.Google Scholar
Kanzaki, Kiyoshi. 1949b. “Shinjuku no baishun chitai” [Shinjuku prostitution area]. Repr., Musume o uru machi—Kanzaki Repoto. Tokyo: Shinkō Shuppansha, 1952.Google Scholar
Kobayashi, Daijirō, and Murase, Akira. 1992. Minna wa shiranai: kokka baishun meirei [No one knows: The state orders prostitution]. Tokyo: Yūzankoku.Google Scholar
Lutz, Catherine. 2001. Homefront: A Military City and the American Twentieth Century. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
McNinch, Joseph H. 1954. “Venereal Disease Problems, U.S. Army Forces, Far East 1950–53.” In Recent Advances in Medicine and Surgery (19–30 April 1954): Based on Professional Military Experiences in Japan and Korea 1950–1953, vol. 2, Medical Science Publication no. 4. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Graduate School Walter Reed Army Medical Center. http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/KOREA/recad2/ch4-2.htm. [accessed April 24, 2009].Google Scholar
Minami, Hiroshi, et al. 1949. Panpan no sekai [The world of the panpan]. Kaizō, December.Google Scholar
Molasky, Michael. 1999. The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Moon, Katherine H. S. 1997. Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.–Korea Relations. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Morimura Akira, . 1957. Henbō suru jinniku ichiba [A transforming flesh market]. Saikei (bessatsu shūkan), December 25.Google Scholar
Nagai, Yoshikazu. 2002. Fūzoku eigyō torishimari [Regulation of the sex industry]. Tokyo: Kōdansha.Google Scholar
Nagasaki Shimbun. 1946. “Dansaa 200 mei ōbōshū” [200 dancers, big job search]. January 1.Google Scholar
Ooru Yomimono. 1950. Yoshiwara [Yoshiwara]. October.Google Scholar
Ooru Yomimono. 1958. Paisen [Paisen]. May.Google Scholar
Parrott, Lindesay. 1945. “The Geisha Girl, GI Version.” New York Times Magazine, November 25.Google Scholar
Pflugfelder, Gregory M. 1999. Cartographies of Desire: Male–Male Sexuality in Japanese Discourse, 1600–1950. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Pivar, David. 1973. Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868–1900. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Ramseyer, J. Mark. 1991. “Indentured Prostitution in Imperial Japan: Credible “Commitments in the Commercial Sex Industry.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 7 (1): 89–116.Google Scholar
Rōdōshō, Fujin Shōnen Kyoku [Women's and Minors' Bureau]. 1953. Fūki ni tsuite no yoron [Public opinion on public morals]. Tokyo: Rōdōshō Fujin Shōnen Kyoku.Google Scholar
Rōdōshō, Fujin Shōnen Kyoku. 1955. Sengo arata ni hassei shita shūsho chiiki ni okeru baishun no jitsujō ni tsuite [Information about the real conditions in collected prostitution areas newly developed in the postwar period]. Tokyo: Rōdōshō Fujin Shōnen Kyoku.Google Scholar
Rowley, G. G. 2002. “Prostitutes against the Prostitution Prevention Act of 1956.” U.S.-Japan Women's Journal, English Supplement 23:39–55.Google Scholar
Sandee Mainichi. 1953. Onrii ni aijō kansatsu [Love licenses for onrii]. August 2.Google Scholar
Sanders, Holly. 2005. “Prostitution in Postwar Japan: Debt and Labor.” PhD diss., Princeton University.Google Scholar
Sasebo No Joseishi No Kai. 1994. Sasebo no joseishi [Sasebo's women's history 3]. Sasebo: Sasebo Joseishi no Kai.Google Scholar
Sensō Sekinin Kenkyū. 2005. “Ianfu: sei bōryoku saiban no seika to kadai.” [“Comfort women”: achievement and remaining issues from the lawsuits against sexual violence]. No. 47.Google Scholar
Shiga-Fujime, Yuki. 1993. “The Prostitutes' Union and the Impact of the 1956 Anti-Prostitution Law in Japan.” U.S.-Japan Women's Journal, English Supplement 5:3–27.Google Scholar
Silverberg, Miriam. 1998. “The Cafe Waitress Serving Modern Japan.” In Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan, ed. Vlastos, Steven, 208–55. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shūkan Yomiuri. 1953. “Tōkyoku no me o moguru gyōsha” [Proprietors hiding from the eyes of the authorities]. November 28.Google Scholar
Shūkan Yomiuri. 1958. “Chikahen ‘aosen akasen chizu’: keishō kaeru onnatachi” [The shifting underground map of “blue-line and red-line”: The women changing makeup]. February 23.Google Scholar
Stars and Stripes. 1945. “Jap Sailor Strikes G.I.'s Date in Tokyo.” Pacific edition, November 8.Google Scholar
Supreme Command of the Allied Forces (SCAP), Civil Information and Education Section. 1949. The Japanese People Look at Prostitution. Tokyo: SCAP, Civil Information and Education Section.Google Scholar
Takemura, Tamio. 1982. Haishō undō: kuruwa no josei wa dō kaihō o sareta ka [The prostitution abolition movement: How the women of the licensed quarters were liberated]. Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha.Google Scholar
Tipton, Elise K. 2002. Pink Collar Work: The Café Waitress in Early Twentieth Century Japan. Intersections: Gender, History, and Culture in the Asian Context, no. 7. http://wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au/intersections/issue7/tipton.html [accessed April 24, 2009].Google Scholar
Tōkeikyo. 1987. Nihon chōki tōkei sōran [Historical statistics of Japan]. Vol. 4. Tokyo: Nihon Tōkei Kyōkai.Google Scholar
Tsubota, Itsuo, ed. 1983. Senchū sengo no josei [Wartime and postwar women]. Tokyo: Akatsuki Kyōiku Tosho.Google Scholar
Uchida, Fumio. 1989. Paradaisu dōri no onna tachi [The women of Paradise Street]. Sasebo: Hotaru Shoten.Google Scholar
Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi. 2003. “Comfort Women: Beyond Litigious Feminism.” Monumenta Nipponica 58 (2): 223–58.Google Scholar
Willoughby, John. 2001. Remaking the Conquering Heroes: The Social and Geopolitical Impact of the Post-War American Occupation of Germany. New York: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshimi Kaneko, . 1992. Baishō no shakaishi [A social history of prostitution]. Tokyo: Yūzankaku Shuppan.Google Scholar
Yoshimi Yoshiaki, . 2000. Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II. Trans. O'Brien, Suzanne. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Yoshimi Yoshiaki, . 2006. “Nihongun ‘ianfu’ mondai no kenkyū seika: ‘ianfu’ seidō gōhōron o uchiyaburu tame ni” [The research results of the Japanese military “comfort women” issue: For the sake of confronting the argument that the “comfort women” system was legal]. In Sensō to Sei. Repr. 2002 lecture.Google Scholar
Yunomae, Kazuko. 2000. Baibaishun [Prostitution]. In Joseigaku jiten [A dictionary of women's studies], ed. Teruko, Inoue et al. , 643–44. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Zadan. 1949. “Panpan gogen kō” [On the etymology of panpan]. July.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1947a. “Monthly Occupation Intelligence Summary No. 11—From Month of February 1947.” AWM 114/130/2, March 8.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1947b. “Prevention and Control of Venereal Disease.” AWM 114/267/6/17, December 19.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1949. “Treatment of V.D. at Japanese Hospital, Kure.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, August 3.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950a. “Petition.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, November 18.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950b. “Special Class of Women Calling Our Attention.” Chugoku Shimbun. AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, November 22.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950c. “Procuring Servicemen for Prostitutes and Prostitution in Iwakuni.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, December 6.Google Scholar
Australian War Memorial (AWM). 1950d. “S/L.D.R. F. C. Bibby, to Assistant Provost Marshal.” AWM 114/417/1/27 no. 4, December 12.Google Scholar
Columbia University Libraries. 1948. “Extract from Publications Analysis #221.” Supreme Command for the Allied Forces (SCAP), Military Intelligence Section, General Staff Allied Translator and Interpreter Division, November 9.Google Scholar
Prange Collection. 1946. “Y. Yamamoto (a précis of) News Matter or Table of Contents, Shūshoku ga ari shitugyō gohyakuman [Five million had jobs and lost them]. Fujin Asahi, March. Unpublished.Google Scholar
Prange Collection. 1948. Ōtani Susumu. Ikite iru: Ueno chikadō no jittai [Living: The true conditions of Ueno's subterranean tunnels]. Tokyo: Sengo Nihon Shakai Settaishi.Google Scholar
Sasebo Municipal Archives. 1964. Letter, Mayor Kazuzō Tsuji to Sasebo Naval Base Chief Commander A. F. Farwell.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). 1946a. RG 331. “SCAPIN 642.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, January 21.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1946b. “Publications Analysis #8.” SCAP, Civil Information and Education Section, Media Analysis Division, February 2.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1946c. “Yoshida Sumiko to Colonel Allen.” Trans. SCAP. SCAP, Civil Information and Education Section, Information Division, Policy and Program Branch, Women's Affairs Activities, 1945–50, October 15.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1947. “Sakamoto Mitsuko to General Douglas MacArthur.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, February 7.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1949a. “Request that Owners of Houses of Ill-Repute Be Ostracized from Society.” SCAP, Preventive Medicine Division. Abolition of Licensed Prostitution, no. 1 (1945–48), no. 2 (1949–50), February 1.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1949b. “What a Swan Would Be.” SCAP, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Public Safety Division. Police Branch. Subject File, 1945–52, Pistols to Prostitution, Box 334, May 15.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950a. “Tanaka Seiko to General Headquarters.” (Translation Digest). SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, received May 26.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950b. “Report on the Enforcement of Prostitute and Etc. Control Ordinance.” SCAP, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Public Safety Division, Police Branch, Subject File, 1945–52, Pistols to Prostitution, Box 334, July 19.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950c. “John W. Rouk. Venereal Disease Control.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventive Medicine Division, November 24.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950d. “An Appeal to All Young Girls” [Wakai josei no minasan ni onegai]. Sasebo Morals Purification Committee. SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventative Medicine Division, December 1.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1950e. “By-Law against Solicitation Passed in Sasebo.” Memorandum to Glover. SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventative Medicine Division, December 15.Google Scholar
United States National Archives (USNA). RG 331. 1951. “Memorandum from Mayor's Office of Sasebo.” SCAP, Public Health and Welfare Section, Preventative Medicine Division, January 5.Google Scholar
United States Strategic Bombing Survey. 1946. “Summary Report” (Pacific War). Washington, D.C., July 1.Google Scholar
United States Strategic Bombing Survey. 1947. “The Effects of Bombing on Health and Medical Services in Japan.” Medical Division, June.Google Scholar
Baishun taisaiku shingikai, , ed. 1959. Baishun taisaku no genkyō [Status of prostitution countermeasures]. Tokyo: Okurashō Insatsu Kyoku.Google Scholar
Briggs, Laura. 2002. Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Dower, John W. 1999. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar
Frühstück, Sabine. 2003. Colonizing Sex: Sexology and Social Control in Modern Japan. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 1997a. “The Licensed Prostitution System and the Prostitution Abolition Movement in Modern Japan.” Trans. Kerry Ross. positions 5 (1): 135–70.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 1997b. Sei no rekishigaku [The historiography of sex]. Tokyo: Fuji Shuppan.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 2003. Higashi Ajia reisen to jendaa [The East Asian cold war and gender]. Self-published report, Osaka.Google Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 2006a. “Japanese Feminism and Commercialized Sex: The Union of Militarism and Prohibitionism.” Social Science Japan Journal 9 (2): 33–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujime, Yuki. 2006b. “The U.S.–Japan Military Alliance and Local Prostitution Ordinances.” Trans. Shinnosuke Nakamura. Contemporary Women's History in Asia 2:124–48.Google Scholar
Fujin shinpū. 1953a. “Dō shitara seibyō wa yobō dekiru ka” [What can we do to protect against venereal disease?]. December 1. Repr. of 1952–57 issues with commentary by Fukae Masako. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1989.Google Scholar
Fujin shinpū.. 1953b. “Shidō kenshin no tōkei o miru” [Looking at the statistics on guided medical examinations]. October 1.Google Scholar
Fujino, Yutaka. 2001. Sei no kokka kanri: baibaishun no kin gendaishi [State management of sex: The modern and contemporary history of prostitution]. Tokyo: Fuji Shuppan.Google Scholar
Garon, Sheldon. 1997. Molding Japanese Minds: The State in Everyday Life. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gendai Yōgo No Kiso Chishiki [Basic knowledge of contemporary terms]. 1949. Tokyo: Jiyū Kokuminsha.Google Scholar
Goedde, Petra. 2003. GIs and Germans: Culture, Gender and Foreign Relations, 1945–1949. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Henson, Maria Rosa. 1996. Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny. Quezon City: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.Google Scholar
Hirata, Tadamichi, and Morita, Shōheji. 1953. Gaishō to kodomotchi: toku ni Yokosukashi no genjo no bunseki [Streetwalkers and children: A special analysis of current conditions of base town Yoskosuka]. Tokyo: Keio Gijuku Daigaku Shakai Jigyō Kenkūkai.Google Scholar
Hirai Kazuko, . 2001. Beigun kichi baibaishun to han “baishun” undō: Gotemba no bai [American military-base prostitution and the anti-prostitution movement: The case of Gotemba]. Joseishigaku 11:1–13.Google Scholar
Hirai Kazuko, . 2004. “Nihon senryō o ‘sei’ de minaosu” [Reexamining the occupation of Japan as “sex”]. Nihonshi kenkyū 500:107–30.Google Scholar
Höhn, Maria. 2002. GIs and Frauleins: The German-American Encounter in 1950s West Germany. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Honda, Mitsurō, ed. 1979. Furusato no omoide shashinshū: Meiji Taishō Shōwa Sasebo [A reminescent photograph collection of hometowns: Meiji Taishō Shōwa Sasebo]. Tokyo: Kokusho Kankōkai.Google Scholar
Howard, Keith, ed. 1995. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women. London: Cassell.Google Scholar
Hume, Bill. 1953. Babysan: A Private Look at the Japanese Occupation. Tokyo: Kasuga Boeki.Google Scholar
Inomata, Kōzō, et al. 1953. Kichi Nihon: ushinawareyuiku sokoku no sugata [Base Japan: The disappearing figure of the homeland]. Tokyo: Wakōsha.Google Scholar
Journal of Social Hygiene. 1949. “State of the Union regarding Commercialized Prostitution.” 35 (4): 146–76.Google Scholar
Kanai, San'kichi. 1952. “Onna ni yashinawareru Nihon—sono shukuzu wa Sasebo” [Japan that is fed by women—its epitome is Sasebo]. Tōyō Keizai Shinpō Bessatsu, July.Google Scholar
Kanzaki, Kiyoshi. 1949a. “Ori no nai dōbutsuen” [Zoo without a cage]. Josei Kaizō, April.Google Scholar
Kanzaki, Kiyoshi. 1949b. “Shinjuku no baishun chitai” [Shinjuku prostitution area]. Repr., Musume o uru machi—Kanzaki Repoto. Tokyo: Shinkō Shuppansha, 1952.Google Scholar
Kobayashi, Daijirō, and Murase, Akira. 1992. Minna wa shiranai: kokka baishun meirei [No one knows: The state orders prostitution]. Tokyo: Yūzankoku.Google Scholar
Lutz, Catherine. 2001. Homefront: A Military City and the American Twentieth Century. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
McNinch, Joseph H. 1954. “Venereal Disease Problems, U.S. Army Forces, Far East 1950–53.” In Recent Advances in Medicine and Surgery (19–30 April 1954): Based on Professional Military Experiences in Japan and Korea 1950–1953, vol. 2, Medical Science Publication no. 4. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Graduate School Walter Reed Army Medical Center. http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/KOREA/recad2/ch4-2.htm. [accessed April 24, 2009].Google Scholar
Minami, Hiroshi, et al. 1949. Panpan no sekai [The world of the panpan]. Kaizō, December.Google Scholar
Molasky, Michael. 1999. The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Moon, Katherine H. S. 1997. Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.–Korea Relations. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Morimura Akira, . 1957. Henbō suru jinniku ichiba [A transforming flesh market]. Saikei (bessatsu shūkan), December 25.Google Scholar
Nagai, Yoshikazu. 2002. Fūzoku eigyō torishimari [Regulation of the sex industry]. Tokyo: Kōdansha.Google Scholar
Nagasaki Shimbun. 1946. “Dansaa 200 mei ōbōshū” [200 dancers, big job search]. January 1.Google Scholar
Ooru Yomimono. 1950. Yoshiwara [Yoshiwara]. October.Google Scholar
Ooru Yomimono. 1958. Paisen [Paisen]. May.Google Scholar
Parrott, Lindesay. 1945. “The Geisha Girl, GI Version.” New York Times Magazine, November 25.Google Scholar
Pflugfelder, Gregory M. 1999. Cartographies of Desire: Male–Male Sexuality in Japanese Discourse, 1600–1950. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Pivar, David. 1973. Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868–1900. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Ramseyer, J. Mark. 1991. “Indentured Prostitution in Imperial Japan: Credible “Commitments in the Commercial Sex Industry.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 7 (1): 89–116.Google Scholar
Rōdōshō, Fujin Shōnen Kyoku [Women's and Minors' Bureau]. 1953. Fūki ni tsuite no yoron [Public opinion on public morals]. Tokyo: Rōdōshō Fujin Shōnen Kyoku.Google Scholar
Rōdōshō, Fujin Shōnen Kyoku. 1955. Sengo arata ni hassei shita shūsho chiiki ni okeru baishun no jitsujō ni tsuite [Information about the real conditions in collected prostitution areas newly developed in the postwar period]. Tokyo: Rōdōshō Fujin Shōnen Kyoku.Google Scholar
Rowley, G. G. 2002. “Prostitutes against the Prostitution Prevention Act of 1956.” U.S.-Japan Women's Journal, English Supplement 23:39–55.Google Scholar
Sandee Mainichi. 1953. Onrii ni aijō kansatsu [Love licenses for onrii]. August 2.Google Scholar
Sanders, Holly. 2005. “Prostitution in Postwar Japan: Debt and Labor.” PhD diss., Princeton University.Google Scholar
Sasebo No Joseishi No Kai. 1994. Sasebo no joseishi [Sasebo's women's history 3]. Sasebo: Sasebo Joseishi no Kai.Google Scholar
Sensō Sekinin Kenkyū. 2005. “Ianfu: sei bōryoku saiban no seika to kadai.” [“Comfort women”: achievement and remaining issues from the lawsuits against sexual violence]. No. 47.Google Scholar
Shiga-Fujime, Yuki. 1993. “The Prostitutes' Union and the Impact of the 1956 Anti-Prostitution Law in Japan.” U.S.-Japan Women's Journal, English Supplement 5:3–27.Google Scholar
Silverberg, Miriam. 1998. “The Cafe Waitress Serving Modern Japan.” In Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan, ed. Vlastos, Steven, 208–55. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shūkan Yomiuri. 1953. “Tōkyoku no me o moguru gyōsha” [Proprietors hiding from the eyes of the authorities]. November 28.Google Scholar
Shūkan Yomiuri. 1958. “Chikahen ‘aosen akasen chizu’: keishō kaeru onnatachi” [The shifting underground map of “blue-line and red-line”: The women changing makeup]. February 23.Google Scholar
Stars and Stripes. 1945. “Jap Sailor Strikes G.I.'s Date in Tokyo.” Pacific edition, November 8.Google Scholar
Supreme Command of the Allied Forces (SCAP), Civil Information and Education Section. 1949. The Japanese People Look at Prostitution. Tokyo: SCAP, Civil Information and Education Section.Google Scholar
Takemura, Tamio. 1982. Haishō undō: kuruwa no josei wa dō kaihō o sareta ka [The prostitution abolition movement: How the women of the licensed quarters were liberated]. Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha.Google Scholar
Tipton, Elise K. 2002. Pink Collar Work: The Café Waitress in Early Twentieth Century Japan. Intersections: Gender, History, and Culture in the Asian Context, no. 7. http://wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au/intersections/issue7/tipton.html [accessed April 24, 2009].Google Scholar
Tōkeikyo. 1987. Nihon chōki tōkei sōran [Historical statistics of Japan]. Vol. 4. Tokyo: Nihon Tōkei Kyōkai.Google Scholar
Tsubota, Itsuo, ed. 1983. Senchū sengo no josei [Wartime and postwar women]. Tokyo: Akatsuki Kyōiku Tosho.Google Scholar
Uchida, Fumio. 1989. Paradaisu dōri no onna tachi [The women of Paradise Street]. Sasebo: Hotaru Shoten.Google Scholar
Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi. 2003. “Comfort Women: Beyond Litigious Feminism.” Monumenta Nipponica 58 (2): 223–58.Google Scholar
Willoughby, John. 2001. Remaking the Conquering Heroes: The Social and Geopolitical Impact of the Post-War American Occupation of Germany. New York: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshimi Kaneko, . 1992. Baishō no shakaishi [A social history of prostitution]. Tokyo: Yūzankaku Shuppan.Google Scholar
Yoshimi Yoshiaki, . 2000. Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II. Trans. O'Brien, Suzanne. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Yoshimi Yoshiaki, . 2006. “Nihongun ‘ianfu’ mondai no kenkyū seika: ‘ianfu’ seidō gōhōron o uchiyaburu tame ni” [The research results of the Japanese military “comfort women” issue: For the sake of confronting the argument that the “comfort women” system was legal]. In Sensō to Sei. Repr. 2002 lecture.Google Scholar
Yunomae, Kazuko. 2000. Baibaishun [Prostitution]. In Joseigaku jiten [A dictionary of women's studies], ed. Teruko, Inoue et al. , 643–44. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Zadan. 1949. “Panpan gogen kō” [On the etymology of panpan]. July.Google Scholar