¹ Bennett, Gordon A., “Chinese Political Culture,” in Problems of Communism 28, no. 1 (Jan.-Feb. 1972): 72.Google Scholar

² Erh-min, Wang, Chung-kuo chin-tai ssu-hsiang shib-lun [Historical studies on modern Chinese thought] (Taipei: Hua-shih ch'u-pan-she, 1977), pp. 55Google Scholar, 434; P'eng-yüan, Chang, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao yii Min-kuo cheng-chih [Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the politics of the Republican period] (Taipei: Shih-huo ch'u-pan-she yu-hsien kung-ssu, 1978), p. 3;Google ScholarMeisner, Maurice, Mao's China (New York: The Free Press, 1977), pp. 8, 11.Google Scholar

³ Bendix, Reinhard, Kings or People (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1978), pp. 269–70.Google ScholarPubMed

⁴ Los Angeles Times, ijuly 1979, section 6, p. 3.

⁵ Quine, W. V., Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1969), p. 1Google Scholar

⁶ The argument in Escape is supposed to fit into psychological theory about Chinese personality patterns. See my “Selfhood and Authority in Neo-Confucian Political Culture,” in Arthur Kleinman and Tsung-yi Lin, eds., Normal and Deviant Behavior in Chinese Culture (forthcoming).

⁷ For an overview of these assumptions, ibid., pt. two.

⁸ Cited in Wai-lu, Hou et al., Chung-kuo ssu-Chinese thought], 5 vols. (Peking: Jen-min ch'u- hsiang t'ung-shih, [A comprehensive history of pan-she 1957–1960), 4B: 725–26.Google Scholar

⁹ Metzger, Thomas A., The Internal Organization of Ch'ing Bureaucracy (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973), ch. 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Lin, Yü-sheng, The Crisis of Chinese Consciousness (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1979), p. 17.Google Scholar For the contrast in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's mind between wang-tao and huang-ti, see Fu-kuan, Hsü, “Lun Shih-chi” [On the Shih-cbi], in Ta-lu tsa-chih 55, no. 6 (December 1977): 5, 9.Google Scholar The idea that Confucians failed to differentiate the moral from the political order goes back to May Fourth ideologues. See Hai-kuan, Ying, Chung-kuo wen-hua- te chan-wang [An appraisal of Chinese culture and its prospects], 2 vols. (Taipei: Wen-hsing shu-tien, 1966), 2: 392, 608–10.Google Scholar

¹¹ Pao-ch'ien, Lu, Ch'ing-tai ssu-hsiang-shih [A history of thought in the Ch'ing period] (Taipei: Kuang-wen shu-chü yu-hsien kung-ssu, 1978)Google Scholar, ch. 1. On Liu Tsung-chou, see Tsung-hsi, Huang, Ming-ju hsüeh-an [Taipei: Shih-chieh shu-chü, 1961), pp. 673–74.Google Scholar

¹² Hou Wai-lu, pp. 725–26, 722, 694–95, 728.

¹³ Metzger, , Internal, p. 36.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Lu Pao-ch'ien, p. 21.

¹⁵ Peterson, W. J., Bitter Gourd (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 101–19.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Lin, pp. 74, 80, 97. Actually Chinese scholars since at least the late 1940s have been aware of the paradoxical way that the iconoclasts partly expressed traditional values.

¹⁷ Ibid., p. 156.

¹⁸ Schwartz, Benjamin I., In Search of Wealth and Power (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 1964), pp. 105–6.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Lin Yü-sheng's and Meisner's studies, referred to above, are recent examples. In his foreword to Lin's book, Professor Schwartz endorses Lin's problematic discussion without qualification.

²⁰ Chang, Hao, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and Intellectual Transition in China (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1971), pp. 70–72, 125.Google Scholar

²¹ P'eng-yüan, Chang, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao yü Ch'ing-chi ko-ming [Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the late Ch'ing revolution] (Nankang: Academia Sinica, Institute of Modern History, 1969), pp. 31–37.Google Scholar

²² Hao Chang, p. 214.

²³ P'eng-yüan, Chang, Ch'ing-chi, pp. 24–25.Google Scholar For a similar view, see Shih-ch'iang, Lü, Ju-chia ch'uan-t'ung yü wei-hsin (1839–1911) [The Confucian tradition and reform in the late Ch'ing period] (Taipei: Chiao-yü-pu she-hui chiao-yü-ssu, 1976), p. 37.Google Scholar

²⁴ Hao Chang, pp. 178–79, 182, 188, 196, 209, 2 11 -12.

²⁵ Erh-min, Wang, Wan-Ch'ing cbeng-chih ssuhsiang shih-lun [Historical studies on late Ch'ing political thought] (Taipei: Hua-shih ch'u-pan she, 1976), p. 39.Google Scholar

²⁶ Erh-min, Wang, Chin-tai, pp. 151–52.Google Scholar This theme, however, runs through much of Wang's writing.

²⁷ Cited in Erh-min, Wang, Wan-Ch'ing, p. 10.Google Scholar

²⁸ Elvin, Mark, Self-liberation and Self-immolation in Modern Chinese Thought (Canberra: Australian National Univ. 1978).Google Scholar

²⁹ P'eng-yüan, Chang, Ch'ing-chi, pp. 20Google Scholar, 25; P'eng-yüan, Chang, Min-kuo, pp. 67–68Google Scholar, 105; Erh-min, Wang, Chin-tai, p. 97;Google ScholarPrice, Don C., Russia and the Roots of the Chinese Revolution, 1896- 1911 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974), ch. 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁰ On Western skepticism, see Popkin, Richard H., “The Sceptical Origins of the Modern Problem of Knowledge,” in Care, Norman S. and Grimm, Robert H., eds., Perception and Personal Identity (Cleveland: Case Western Reserve Univ. Press, 1969).Google Scholar I am indebted to Eric W. Watkins for this reference.

³¹ Hao Chang, pp. 88, 151–52.

³² Ibid., pp. 87, 97, 170–71, 155. 157, 204.

³³ Erh-min, Wang, Wan-Ch'ing, pp. 14, 28.Google Scholar

³⁴ Erh-min, Wang, Chin-tai, pp. 384–401.Google Scholar

³⁵ Ibid., pp. 406–14, 437.

³⁶ Erh-min, Wang, Wan-Cb'ing, pp. 3–4;Google Scholar Feng Kuei-fen, Chiao-pin-lu k'ang-i [Protests from the Chiao-pin Studio] (published about 1884), preface, I am most indebted to Professor Kwang-Ching Liu for this reference.

³⁷ Erh-min, Wang, Chin-tai, pp. 413, 13, 63.Google ScholarErh-min, Wang, Wan-Ch'ing, pp. 3–4.Google Scholar

³⁸ Erh-min, Wang, Chin-tat, p. 412.Google Scholar

³⁹ Ibid., pp. 417–18, 412, 396. Much of the latter passage is translated in Schwartz, p. 44.

⁴⁰ Erh-min, Wang, Chin-tai, pp. 420–37.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Schwartz, pp. 157–58,43–44, 105–6, 108–9, 52–54.

⁴² See fn. 39.

⁴³ Escape, p. 217; Wang Erh-min, Chin-tai, p. 192.

⁴⁴ Erh-min, Wang, Chin-tai, p. 385.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Yin Hai-kuang, 2: 384.

⁴⁶ See Professor Li San-pao's discussion and transcription of this text in The Tsing-hua Journal of Chinese Studies 11, nos. 1 and 2 (December 1975): 213–47Google Scholar.