¹ Although the question of which texts were preferred by Vietnamese Confucianists is outside the confines of this study, it should be pointed out that this primary stress given to “chastity” reflected the Sung Neo-Confucian teachings of Chu Hsi, not those of Confucius, Mencius, and other earlier philosophers.

² For a more complete discussion of such proverbs, and of pre-modern values in general, see Cong-Huyen-Ton-Nu-Thi Nh a Trang, “The Traditional Roles of Women as Reflected in Oral and Written Vietnamese Literature,” Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of California, Berkeley, 1973.

³ In Vietnamese, the best available source is Tuyet, Le Thi Nham, Phu Nu Viet-Nam qua cac thoi dai (Hanoi, 1973), pp. 73–161Google Scholar. Another more colloquial expression was, “One hundred daughters are not worth a single testicle.”

⁴ Ngoc, Nguyen Van, compiler, Tuc Ngu Phong Dao, Vol. 1 (Saigon, 1967), p. 226Google Scholar. First published in 1928.

⁵ Ibid., p. 338.

⁶ Trai, Nguyen, Gia Huan Ca (Saigon, 1953), p. 12Google Scholar. Recent research indicates that this poem may have been written in the seventeenth century, but subsequently attributed to Nguyen Trai. As we shall see, such constant Neo-Confucian equating of chastity and loyalty, including loyalty to the Vietnamese nation, posed a formidable intellectual problem for progressive writers of the 1920s.

⁷ Ibid., p. 15.

⁸ Ibid., p. 20. For a more thorough discussion of Gia Huan Cax, see Nha Trang (n. 2 above), pp. 15–46.

⁹ Con, Dang Tran, Chinh Phu Ngam Khuc (Saigon, 1950)Google Scholar. While the original work was written in Chinese, it was quickly translated into chu nom by Doan Thi Diem, a female contemporary of Dang Tran Con and herself a striking exception to the general educational rule.

¹⁰ Du, Nguyen, Truyen Thuy Kieu (Saigon, 1968 (8th printing))Google Scholar. A new and much improved English translation is now available: Du, Nguyen, The Tale of Kieu (New York, 1973)Google Scholar, Huynh Sanh Thong (translator). For a detailing of the ethical questions, see Nha Trang (n. 2 above), pp. 83–155.

¹¹ Chieu, Nguyen Dinh, Luc Van Tien (Saigon, 1946 (4th printing))Google Scholar. Also Nha Trang (n. 2 above), pp. 48–81.

¹² For a detailed discussion of this period, see my Vietnamese Anticolonialism, 1885–1925 (Berkeley, 1971); chaps. 4–8 are especially relevant.Google Scholar

¹³ Lieu, Tran Huy (ed.), Lich Su Thu Do Ha-Noi (Hanoi, 1960), pp. 151–52Google Scholar. Trung Trac and Trung Nhi led an unsuccessful revolt against Chinese Han dynasty overlords in the first century A.D.

¹⁴ Lieu, Tran Huy et al., Cach Mang Can Dai Viet-Nam, Vol. 3 (Hanoi, 1958), p. 31.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Chau, Phap Boi, Tuong Trung Nu Vuong/Truyen Pham Hong Thia (Hanoi, 1967). Written about 1911 in Siam, the play was apparently smuggled into Vietnam in various hand-written copies after 1913.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Phan Boi Chau was not the first to picture the Trung sisters this way. Leaders of the Tay Son movement in the late eighteenth century did like-wise; and they may well have gotten it from pre-Confucian Vietnamese folklore. Woodside, Alexander B., Vietnam and the Chinese Model (Cambridge, 1971), p. 46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷ Quynh, Pham, “Su Giao-Duc Dan Ba Con Gai,” Thuong-Chi Van-Tap, Vol. 1 (Saigon, 1962), pp. 17–35.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Quynh, Pham, “Truyen Kieu,” Thuone-Chi Van-Tap, Vol. 3 (Saigon, 1962), pp. 79–131.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Quynh, Pham, “Dao Due da den ngay tu chuc chang,” Thuong-Chi Van-Tap, Vol. 2 (Saigon, 1962), pp. 233–44.Google Scholar

²⁰ Trung, Nguyen Van, Pham Quynh: Van Hoc va Chinh Tri (Saigon, 1973), pp. 36–37.Google Scholar

²¹ Tong, Huynh Van, Licb Su Bao Chi Viet-Nam (Saigon, 1973), pp. 100–02Google Scholar.

²² Each issue had 18 pages (eight devoted to advertising) and cost .40 piastres, a prohibitive charge for all but a few potential readers.

²³ Tho, Nam Xuan, Suong Nguyet Anh (Saigon, 1957), pp. 13, 22–23.Google Scholar

²⁴ Ibid., p. 28.

²⁵ Out of a total of 435,782 primary students. See “Tableau Statistique de l'Enseignement en Indochine,” Archives Nationales de France, Section Outre-Mer, NF 1323.

²⁶ Phan Din h Giap, Nu Hoc Luan Ly Tap Doc (Hanoi). Copie s of each text cited subsequently are housed in the Bibliotheque Nationale (Paris), Fond Indo-Chinois. I would like to thank Mme. Chris^t' ^ane Rageau—Curator of the collection, and M. Pham Nhu H o for cooperating with me in locating and analyzing thes e and other publications. A grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities helped make this research possible.

²⁷ Nghiem, Dinh Chi, Dao Nam Huan Nu (Hanoi, 1927)Google Scholar. Like many others, the author relied on poetry to reach her students and facilitate memorization. Hers was an unusual 7–8 syllable combination. Others employed the better-known 6–8 or 5–5 patterns.

²⁸ Khoi, Do Due, Nu Hoc Thuong Hanb (Hanoi, 1926).Google Scholar

²⁹ Trinh Dinh Ru, Nu Sinh Doc Ban. Another writer refers to Trinh Dinh Ru's wife in the same laudatory category as Suong Nguyet Anh and Dam Phuong, so it may well be that she had an important role in this and other publications. Bay, Dang Van, Nam Nu Binh Quyen, Saigon, 1928.Google Scholar

³⁰ As a Confucian scholar, however, Trinh Dinh Ru felt constrained to add that, whereas Ho Xuan Huong's style was brilliant, it was “too bad that so many poems lacked propriety.”

³¹ Nu Quoc-Dan Tu Tri (Hue, 1927, 2nd printing), pp. 3–16. The form was 8–8 poetry.Google Scholar

³² Hoa, Hoang Tbi Tuyet, Giam Ho Nu Hiep (Saigon, 1928)Google Scholar. Ngoc Son and Doan Hiet (translators), Guong Ai Quoc (Saigon, 1928).Google ScholarDich, Hue, Trieu Tien Cach Menh Mac Tu Oanh (Hanoi, 1927).Google Scholar

³³ Hai, Nguyen Hoc, Trinh Due Tu: Trung Hoa Nu Kiel, 3 vols., 2nd printing, 1929.Google Scholar

³⁴ Van, Phan Thi Bach, Guong Nu Kiet (Saigon, 1928)Google Scholar. Ngoc Son and Doan Hiet (trans.), Than Tu Do, 2 vols. (Saigon, 1928–29). Perhaps partly in response, French colonial textbooks soon were glorifyingjoan of Arc.

³⁵ Hinh, Nguyen An, Hai Ba Trung (Saigon, 1928)Google Scholar. So Cuong, , Nu Luu Van Hoc Su (Hanoi, 1929)Google Scholar; three thousand copies of this book were printed, priced at 35 piastres each. Dinh, Nguyen Kim, Gat Anh Hung Nuoc Nam (Saigon, 1928).Google Scholar

³⁶ Hoan, Truong, Nguyen Tuyet Hoa, 5 vols. (Saigon, 1930)Google Scholar.

³⁷ Ibid., p. 154.

³⁸ , R.P.N., Sack Day Nau An Tbeo Phep Annam (Saigon, 1929)Google Scholar.

³⁹ Most striking was the fat compendium put out annually in quoc-ngu by the famous Chinese Tigerbalm medicine king. By 1931 this combined almanac, manual, and company advertisement was 370 pages long; and 100,000 copies were being printed. Sanh, Luong Y Vi-Te, Nhi Thien Duong (Saigon, 1931)Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Devy, Quan Bac-Si, Choi Khoi Om Dau, (Hanoi, 4th printing, 1928). Translated by Do Uong, medical assistant at Hai-duong province hos pital.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Luong, Hoang Mang (compiler), Thuoc Gia Dung va Phep Cuu Cap (Hue, 1927).Google Scholar

⁴² , N.H.N. (compiler), Ve Sanh Nguoi, Di Doan Minh (Sadec, 1929).Google Scholar

⁴³ Khai, Nguyen Van (trans.), Nam Nu Hon Nhan Ve Sinh (Haiphong, 2nd printing, 1924)Google Scholar. The translator also added a short 7–7–6–8 poetic preface justifying the topic. Several diagrams of sexual anatomy were included.

⁴⁴ Luyen, Nguyen Van, San Due Chi-Nam (Hanoi, 1925)Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Minh-Y, Truong, Ve Sanh Can Yeu (Saigon, 1928)Google Scholar. Sac, Tran Phong, Ve Sanh Thuc Tri (Saigon, 1928)Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Bong, Nguyen Manh (comp.), Hoa Lieu Benh Phiem Dam (Haiphong, 1929)Google Scholar. A 1931 edition contained pictures of venereal disease s in various stages.

⁴⁷ Phan Boi Chau (n. 31 above), Nu Quoc Dan Tu Tri, pp. 18–27.

⁴⁸ For example, advertisements for Dao Duy Anh's “Quan Hai Tung Thu” publishing endeavor were included in the Association Journal, Phu Nu Tung San.

⁴⁹ See, for example, the 3 June 1927 letter from Bich Van, Association member in N am Dinh. Hue, Hoi Nu Cong, Nu Cong Thuong Thuc (Hue, 1929), Vol. 2, pp. 30–31.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Hai Trieu (real name, Nguyen Khoa Van), along with other associates joined the Indochinese Communist Party later the same year. He played an enimportant role in journalistic and literary activities for the ICP until his death in 1954.

⁵¹ Speech given 13 Sept 1926. Phan Boi Chau (n. 31 above), Nu Quoc Dan Tu Tri, p. 29.

⁵² Phuong, Dam, Phu Nu Du Gia-Dinb (Saigon, 1929), Vol. 2, p. 10.Google Scholar

⁵³ At the moment, we have only circumstantial evidence for women's groups beyond these three. The Da-Nang organization is mentioned in the weekly newspaper Thanh Nien Tan Tien, No. 11, 31 Jan 1929. Hoi An (or Faifo) boasted an organization of fourteen members and circulated a pamphlet enimportant titled Nu Cong Hoc Hoi Faifo, n. p., 1926.

⁵⁴ Phuong, Dam, Hong Phan Tuong Tri (GoCong, 1929); see inside and back covers. The previous year, Nu Luu Tho Quan had printed and circulated 10,000 copies of a four-page advertisement requesting long-term subscriptions. Phan Thi Bach-Van, Chinh Nghe Xuat Ban, Go Cong, Dec 1928.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ See note 38 above.

⁵⁶ A brief biography of a Korean woman who fought Japanese colonial rule was the first specifically women-oriented book banned in Annam, in an edict dated 8 Oct 1927. Five books of the Nu Luu Tho Quan (Go-Cong) were banned in 1929. Ho, Trung Ky Bao, Nghi-Dinh Cam cac thu Sach va cac Thu Bao, Chi Khong duoc truyen ba, phat mat va tang tru trong hat Trung-Ky (Hue, 1929 (?))Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ Nu Cong Thuong Thuc (n. 49 above), Vol. 1, pp. 38–40.

⁵⁸ Ibid., pp. 25–28.

⁵⁹ Phu Nu Tung San (n. 48 above), No. 1, May 1929, pp. 1–35.

⁶⁰ Nu Cong Thuong Thuc, Vol. 3 (Hue, 1931).

⁶¹ Ibid., p. 39. Nu Cong Thuong Thuc (n. 49 above). Vol. 2, pp. 30–32.

⁶² One thousand copies of this sixty-page essay were printed.

⁶³ Ibid., pp. 24–29.

⁶⁴ Ibid., p. 58. The two words go together as boa-thuan(peace, harmony and concord), the compound often symbolizing ideal husband-wife relations. However, it was always clear that the first half was initiator, coordinator; the second half, follower or recipient.

⁶⁵ Ibid., pp. 42–43, 48–56.

⁶⁶ Phu Nu Tung San(n. 48 above), No. 1, p. 32.

⁸⁷ Three thousand copies were printed in Saigon, and sold at 30 piastres each; it was promptly banned in Annam.

⁶⁸ Ibid., pp. 26–28.

⁶⁹ Ibid., pp. 30–31.