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Images of Equality and Freedom: the Representation of Chinese American Men, America Today Magazine, and the Cultural Cold War in Asia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2018

CHIOU-LING YEH
CHIOU-LING YEH*
Affiliation:
History Department, San Diego State University. Email: [email protected].
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Abstract

This article analyzes America Today, a United States Information Service publication circulated to Southeast Asian Chinese between 1949 and 1952. Although the federal government had no intention of lifting immigration restrictions, the magazine promoted the idea that the United States provided humanitarian assistance and abundant opportunities to Chinese immigrants as well as their American-born Chinese counterparts to achieve upward mobility, form a conjugal family, and enjoy patriarchal authority. The stories demonstrated an attempt to inspire Chinese male readers in Southeast Asia to support the United States and the “free world,” rather than Communism and the People's Republic of China.

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Articles
Information
Journal of American Studies , Volume 53 , Issue 2 , May 2019 , pp. 507 - 535
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press and British Association for American Studies 2018 

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References

1 America Today, 22 July 1950, 9 (originally in San Francisco Chronicle), Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” Records of the United States Information Agency, Record Group 306, National Archives, College Park, MD (hereafter RG306, NACP). The author has translated all Chinese into English and uses pinyin to romanize Chinese characters if romanization is not provided in the original texts.

2 Prior to America Today, the USIS–HK produced a publication entitled Chinese Newsletter. Department of State, “Outgoing Telegram,” 25 Jan. 1950, Decimal File, 1950–54, 511.9321/1-2550, Box 2533, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives, College Park, MD (hereafter cited as RG59, NACP).

3 America Today, 24 Oct. 1951, 25–27, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

4 “Draft Country Plan for USIS Hong Kong,” 9 June 1953, 1, folder “Cultural Affairs, July–Dec,” Box 1, E#UD 2689 Hong Kong Classified General Records of the USIS, 1951–54, Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, Record Group 84, National Archives, College Park, MD (hereafter RG84, NACP).

5 Hsu, Madeline Y., The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 233Google Scholar.

6 “Draft Country Plan for USIS Hong Kong,” 9 June 1953, 1–2; Klein, Christina, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 241–42Google Scholar.

7 Frances Saunders has coined the term “the cultural Cold War.” Saunders, Frances, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999)Google Scholar. For US propaganda efforts in Asia see Wilcox, Wayne A., “Contemporary American Influence in South and Southeast Asia,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science – American Civilization: Its Influence on Our Foreign Policy, 366 (July 1966), 108–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Armstrong, Charles K., “The Cultural Cold War in Korea, 1945–1950,” Journal of Asian Studies, 62, 1 (Feb. 2003), 71–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yangwen, Zheng and Liu, Hong, eds., The Cold War in Asia: The Battle for Hearts and Minds (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2010)Google Scholar; Klein, 241–43; Wu, Ellen, “‘America's Chinese’: Anti-Communism, Citizenship, and Cultural Diplomacy during the Cold War,” Pacific Historical Review, 77, 3 (Aug. 2008), 391–422CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yeh, Chiou-Ling, “‘A Saga of Democracy’: Toy Len Goon, American Mother of the Year, and the Cultural Cold War,” Pacific Historical Review, 81, 3 (Aug. 2012), 432–61Google Scholar. For the propaganda efforts aimed at Chinese overseas from the US, the PRC, and the ROC see Meredith Oyen, “Communism, Containment and the Chinese Overseas,” in Zheng and Hong, 77–83.

8 Armstrong, 78.

9 Oyen, Meredith, The Diplomacy of Migration: Transnational Lives and the Making of U.S.–Chinese Relations in the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 130–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Oyen has mostly focussed on news articles and comic books, while Lo Shen-Tung and Jing Jing Chang have studied World Today magazine. Oyen, “Communism, Containment and the Chinese Overseas,” 68–71, 73–74; Lo Shen-Tung, “Chin Jih Shih Chieh So Tsao Ying Hsing Ti Nei Jung Ya Yu Fan Wei, Shang” (The Content and Scope of Images Produced in World Today, Part I), Si Yu Yan (Thinking and Speaking), 9, 4 (1972), 41–47; Lo, “Chin Jih Shih Chieh So Tsao Ying Hsing Ti Nei Jung Ya Yu Fan Wei, Xia” (The Content and Scope of Images Produced in World Today, Part II), Si Yu Yan (Thinking and Speaking), 9, 5 (1972), 34–47; Chang, Jing Jing, “China Doll in Flight: Li Lihua, World Today, and the Free China–US Relationship,” Film History: An International Journal, 26, 3 (2014), 1–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; from American embassy, Taipei to the Department of State, Washington, “IIA Semi-annual Evaluation Report, Dec. 1, 1951–May 31, 1952,” 12 July 1952, Decimal File, 1950–54, 511.93/7-1252, Box 2532, RG59, NACP.

11 Chiou-Ling Yeh, “Chinese Women's Progress in the United States: America Today Magazine and the Cultural Cold War in Asia, 1949–1952,” paper presented at the Chinese Women in World History Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, July 2017.

12 Jiemin, Bao, “The Gendered Biopolitics of Marriage and Immigration: A Study of Pre-1949 Chinese Immigrants in Thailand,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 34, 1 (Feb. 2003), 127–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 128.

13 May, Elaine Tyler, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 2008)Google Scholar; for information about using white American gender norms as a propaganda tool see Belmonte, Laura A., Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 136–58Google Scholar. Scholars have increasingly argued against Cold War domesticity, for example Meyerowitz, Joanne, ed., Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1946–1960 (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

14 USIS used films, radio, and cartoons to reach to the illiterate population.

15 Hinsch, Bret, Masculinities in Chinese History (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013), 136Google Scholar.

16 Ibid., 137–38, 144.

17 For the study of Horatio Alger Jr. see Scharnhorst, Gary, Horatio Alger, Jr. (Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers, 1980)Google Scholar; Nackenoff, Carol, The Fictional Republic: Horatio Alger and American Political Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

18 Schwenk, Melinda M., “‘Negro Stars’ and the USIA's Portrait of Democracy,” Race, Gender & Class, 8, 4 (Oct. 2001), 116–39Google Scholar.

19 Wang, Guanhua, In Search of Justice: The 1905–1906 Chinese Anti-American Boycott (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 50–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Ren, Qing and Ma, Zhongwen, eds., Zhang Yinhuan Riji (Zhang Yinhuan Diary) (Shanghai: Shanghai shu dian chu ban she, 2004), 10Google Scholar.

21 Wang, 81–191.

22 Arkush, R. David and Lee, Leo O., eds., Land without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989)Google Scholar, Figure 16, 188.

23 “Score Easing Chinese Ban,” New York Times, 26 May 1943, 3.

24 The President's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization, Whom We Shall Welcome: Report of the President's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1953), 52Google Scholar.

25 Oyen, The Diplomacy of Migration, 80.

26 Ibid., 87, 191, 205.

27 Hsu, The Good Immigrants, 127.

28 Hsu, Madeline Y., “The Disappearance of America's Cold War: Chinese Refugees, 1948–1966,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 31, 4 (Summer 2012), 12–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 16; Hsu, “Aid Refugee Chinese Intellectuals, Inc. and the Political Uses of Humanitarian Relief, 1952–1962,” Journal of Chinese Overseas, 10, 2 (2014), 137–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 165.

29 Oyen, The Diplomacy of Migration, 165.

30 Ibid., 5.

31 Armstrong, “The Cultural Cold War in Korea,” 78.

32 Central Intelligence Group, “Chinese Minorities in Southeast Asia” (ORE-7), 2 Dec. 1946, Records of the United States Central Intelligence Agency, quoted in Oyen, “Communism, Containment and the Chinese Overseas,” 63–64.

33 Purcell, Victor, The Chinese in Southeast Asia (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), 329–44Google Scholar.

34 From American embassy, Taipei to the Department of State, Washington, “Semi-annual Evaluation Report, Dec. 1, 1951–May 31 1952,” 12 July 1952.

35 Skinner, G. William, Report on the Chinese in Southeast Asia, December 1950 (New York: Cornell University Department of Far Eastern Studies, 1950), 3–79Google Scholar; Purcell.

36 “Confidential: USIS Plan for Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia,” 28 May 1952, folder “Cultural Affairs, July–Dec.,” Box 1, E#UD2689 Hong Kong Classified General Records of USIS, 1951–1954, RG84, NACP; Saxton Bradford to Arthur Hummel, “Confidential, Report of Far East Field Trip, Oct. 1 to Dec. 15, 1953,” 1, enclosed in Saxton Bradford to Arthur Hummel, “Recommended Far East Actions,” 15 Dec. 1953, folder “Cultural Affairs, July–Dec.,” Box 1, E#UD2689 Hong Kong Classified General Records of USIS, 1951–1954, RG84, NACP. For the propaganda effort at the American embassy in Hong Kong see Lombardo, Johannes R., “A Mission of Espionage, Intelligence and Psychological Operations: The American Consulate in Hong Kong, 1949–64,” Intelligence and National Security, 14, 4 (1999), 64–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 Bradford to Hummel, “Confidential, Report of Far East Field Trip, Oct. 1 to Dec. 15, 1953,” 1.

38 John W. Henderson to W. Bradley Connors, “USIS Central Office Report for April 1950,” 2, Decimal File, 1950–54, 511.93/5-1050, Box 2532, RG59, NACP.

39 Henderson to Connors, “USIS Central Office Report for 1950”; from Amconsul, Hong Kong to the Department of State, “IE: Press: ‘America Today’ No. 20, July 22, 1950,” 27 July 1950, 3, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP; from Amconsul, Hong Kong to the Department of State, “IE: Press: ‘America Today’ No. 40, April 28, 1951,” 28 April 1951, 3, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP. The initial production for Amerika was 10,000 copies in 1945, but increased to 50,000 a year later. Peet, Creighton, “Russian ‘Amerika,’ a Magazine about U.S. for Soviet Citizens,” College Art Journal, 11, 1 (Autumn 1951), 17–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 18.

40 Oyen, “Communism, Containment and the Chinese Overseas,” 81.

41 Tokyo also received a special Fourth of July issue of the magazine.

42 Klein, Cold War Orientalism, 23.

43 Department of State, “For the Press, No. 1143,” 10 Nov. 1950, Box 163, Publications, General Records Historical Collections Subject Files, 1953–2000, RG306, NACP.

44 For more information on postwar propaganda see Wagnleitner, Reinhold, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Hixon, Walter, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Osgood, Kenneth, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006)Google Scholar; Belmonte, Selling the American Way. For Cold War democracy see Dudziak, Mary L., Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

45 Department of State, “For the Press, No. 1143”; Wagnleitner, 132.

46 Department of State, “For the Press, No. 1143.”

47 American embassy, Taipei to the Department of State, “IIA Semi-annual Evaluation Report, Dec. 1, 1951–May 31, 1952,” 12 July 1952, 5.

48 America Today, 23 Dec. 1950, 10, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

49 “Confidential: USIS Plan for Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia,” 28 May 1952.

50 America Today, 3 Feb. 1951, 5–6; 17 March 1951, 8–9 (originally in The Reporter, 23 Jan. 1951); 3 Feb. 1951, 8; 17 Feb. 1951, 5; 10 Dec. 1951, 9; 10 Dec. 1951, 10; 7 Jan. 1952, 28–29; 12 May 1951, 10; 3 Feb. 1951, 12 (originally in the New York Times, letter to the editor); 25 Nov. 1950, 3–4; 10 Dec. 1950, 10, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

51 America Today, 4 Feb. 1950, 8, Box 110, “America Today (Chinese) 1–10,” RG306, NACP. For more information on the US response to Indonesian independence movement see McMahon, Robert J., Colonialism and Cold War: The United States and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, 1945–49 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981)Google Scholar.

52 America Today, 4 Feb. 1950, 8; 23 Dec. 1950, 30–31; 12 May 1951, 10; 27 May 1950, 4–5 (originally in the Department of State Wireless Bulletin).

53 Department of State Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs Policy Advisory Staff, “Confidential: Interim Propaganda Plan for Communist China,” Feb. 1951, 1, folder “Cultural Affairs, July–Dec.,” Box 1, E#UD 2689 Hong Kong Classified General Records of the USIS, 1951–54, RG84, NACP.

54 America Today, 17 March 1951, 10–13, 25–26 (originally in Free Press Journal, 15 Dec. 1951), Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

55 America Today, 20 Jan. 1951, 9, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

56 America Today, 20 Feb. 1952, 25–29; 17 Feb. 1951, 22–23; 10 Sept. 1951, 5 (originally in Washington Star); 17 Feb. 1951, 23; 26 May 1951, 6–9; 31 March 1951, 16 (originally in the editorial of the New York Times); 3 Feb. 1951, 23 (originally in Russian Review, April 1950); 10 Nov. 1951, 18–19; 26 Nov. 1951, 25–27; 10 Dec. 1951, 27–29; 11 Nov. 1950, 25–26; 10 Dec. 1950, 20; 14 April 1951, 26; 26 May 1951, 8–9; 28 Nov. 1950, 15; 31 March 1951, 25 (originally in Free Press Journal, 15 Dec. 1951), Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

57 America Today, 10 Dec. 1950, 30 (originally in the editorial of Washington Post); 20 Jan. 1951, 18–19; 26 May 1951, 27, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

58 America Today, 25 Nov. 1950, 1–2; 10 Dec. 1950, 1–5; 23 Dec. 1950, 2–6, 7–8; 6 Jan. 1951, 3–4; 20 Jan. 1951, 3–4; 3 Feb. 1951, 1–4; 17 Feb. 1951, 1–4, 8–9, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

59 Department of State, “Outgoing Telegram,” 25 Jan. 1950.

60 The entire publication of America Today magazine contains fifty-seven issues. However, issues 36, 46, and 47 are missing in the archives. Therefore I could only evaluate fifty-four issues.

61 America Today, 4 Feb. 1950, 13; 26 Nov. 1951, 12–13; 28 Oct. 1950, 23; 14 Oct. 1950, 28; 22 Dec. 1951, 10–11; 10 Dec. 1951, 24; 16 Sept. 1950, 13–14; 30 Sept. 1950, 22; 22 July 1950, 9; 20 Feb. 1952, 20–21; 20 Feb. 1952, 5; 10 Dec. 1951, 12–13; 26 May 1951, 20–21; 28 April 1951, 14; 15 April 1950, 11, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

62 America Today, 11 Nov. 1950, 25–26; 28 Nov. 1950, 15–16; 10 Sept. 1951, 26, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

63 Yang, Rui, “Tensions between the Global and the Local: A Comparative Illustration of the Reorganization of China's Higher Education in the 1950s and 1990s,” Higher Education, 39, 3 (April 2000), 325–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 America Today, 14 Oct. 1950, 28.

65 America Today, 19 Aug. 1950, 10, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

66 America Today, 4 Feb. 1950, 8.

67 America Today, 26 Nov. 1951, 12–13; “Ma, Si-Hon,” New York Times, 17 Sept. 2009, A31, retrieved 22 Jan. 2017.

68 America Today, 28 Oct. 1950, 23, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

69 Jenkins to Henderson, 28 April 1950; for example, America Today, 22 Dec. 1951, 28–29 (originally in Amerika); 20 Jan. 1951, 17; 31 March 1951, 21 (originally in Today's Health); 26 May 1951, 29; 6 Jan. 1951, 7 (originally in Air Bulletin, 4, 84 (8 Dec. 1950)); 3 Feb. 1951, 11 (originally in The Standard, a Hong Kong newspaper); 3 Feb. 1951, 17–18 (originally in The Rotarian); 11 May 1951, 13, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

70 Hsu, The Good Immigrants, 107.

71 America Today, 14 Oct. 1950, 28.

72 America Today, 22 Dec. 1951, 10–11.

73 America Today, 10 Dec. 1951, 24.

74 Hsu, “The Disappearance of America's Cold War,” 13; Oyen, The Diplomacy of Migration, 53.

75 Hsu, The Good Immigrants, 86.

76 America Today, 16 Sept. 1950, 13–14.

77 Shah, Nayan, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco's Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 68–69Google Scholar; Lui, Mary Ting Yi, The Chinatown Trunk Mystery: Murder, Miscegenation, and Other Dangerous Encounters in Turn-of-the-Century New York City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 78–80Google Scholar.

78 America Today, 4 Feb. 1950, 13, Box 110, “America Today (Chinese) 1–10,” RG306, NACP.

79 Hinsch, Masculinities in Chinese History, 152–53.

80 America Today, 29 April 1950, 1–2; 13 May 1950, 1–2; 27 May 1950, 6, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

81 America Today, 24 Oct. 1951, 27; 10 Nov. 1951, 1, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

82 Mann, Susan, Gender and Sexuality in Modern Chinese History (New York: Cambridge University Pres, 2011), 60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stacey, Judith, “When Patriarchy Kowtows: The Significance of the Chinese Family Revolution for Feminist Theory,” Feminist Studies, 2, 2–3 (1975), 64–112CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 81–82.

83 America Today, 30 Sept. 1950, 22.

84 Chan, Sucheng, “The Exclusion of Chinese Women, 1870–1943,” in Chang, ed., Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Community in America, 1882–1943 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 94–146Google Scholar, 109, 120–23, 125.

85 The 1924 immigration law legalized the exclusion of Chinese wives of American citizens. In 1930 the Congress passed a statue “to allow Chinese wives of American citizens who were ‘married prior to the approval of the Immigration Act of 1924’ to be admitted into the country”; these women nonetheless continued to encounter a barrier when seeking immigration. Chan, “The Exclusion of Chinese Women,” 127.

86 America Today, 30 Sept. 1950, 22.

87 America Today, 22 July 1950, 10; Nagasawa, Richard, Summer Wind: The Story of an Immigrant Chinese Politician (Tucson, AZ: Westernlore Press, 1986)Google Scholar, 14, 32.

88 America Today, 22 July 1950, 9.

89 Ibid., 10.

90 Nagasawa, Summer Wind, 43.

91 America Today, 22 July 1950, 9.

92 Freedman, Maurice, “Chinese Communities in Southeast Asia: A Review Article,” Pacific Affairs, 31, 3 (Sept. 1958), 300–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 303.

93 America Today, 20 Feb. 1952, 20–21.

94 The article does not provide Mrs. Fong's full name. Born as Gloria Chin and later rechristened Maylia, Mrs. Fong was a rising actress in her own right. However, she retired from acting after marrying Benson. She helped run the family restaurant business. Cho, Jenny, Chinese in Hollywood (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2013), 54Google Scholar.

95 Hinsch, Masculinities in Chinese History, 144, 152.

96 Chang, Women's Movement in Twentieth-Century Taiwan, 54–56, 60.

97 Bao, “The Gendered Biopolitics of Marriage and Immigration,” 140.

98 Mann, Gender and Sexuality in Modern Chinese History, 48; Hinsch, 154.

99 Benson Fong, “Character Actor and Founder of Cafes, Dies,” Los Angeles Times, 3 Aug. 1987, A3.

100 America Today, 26 May 1951, 15–18 (originally in This Week, 18 March 1951), Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

101 Bao, 137.

102 Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, 159; Skinner, Report on the Chinese in Southeast Asia, 9.

103 America Today, 10 Dec. 1951, 18; 22 Dec. 1951, 10; 7 Jan. 1952, 14–15 (originally in Wireless Bulletin), Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

104 Oyen, “Communism, Containment and the Chinese Overseas,” 66; for more information about the PRC extortion see Oyen, The Diplomacy of Migration, 140–45.

105 America Today, 6 Jan. 1951, 27; 14 April 1951, 6, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

106 America Today, 17 Feb. 1951, 12, Box 111, “America Today (Chinese) 11–56,” RG306, NACP.

107 Purcell, 334–35.

108 Skinner, 51; Purcell, 352.

109 American embassy, Taipei to Department of State, “Transmittal of Copy of Letter Addressed to General MacArthur, Governor Dewey and Senator Knowland,” 28 Aug. 1952, Decimal File, 1950–54, 511.93/8-2852, Box 2532, RG59, NACP.

110 Freedman, Maurice, “Chinese Kinship and Marriage in Singapore,” Journal of Southeast Asian History, 3, 2 (Sept. 1962), 65–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 66.

111 Department of State, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 5 Feb. 1951, 1, Decimal File, 1950–54, 511.93/2-551, RG59, NACP; Saxton Bradford, “Report of Far East Field Trip, Oct. 1 to Dec. 15, 1953,” 1.

112 From American embassy, Taipei to the Department of State, Washington, “IIA Semi-annual Evaluation Report, Dec. 1, 1951–May 31, 1952,” 12 July 1952, 67.

113 Oyen, “Communism, Containment and the Chinese Overseas,” 92.

114 Frey, Marc, “Tools of Empire: Persuasion and the United States's Modernizing Mission in Southeast Asia,” Diplomatic History, 27, 4 (Sept. 2003), 543–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 555.

115 Lo, “Chin Jih Shih Chieh, Part I,” 44, 47; Oyen, “Communism, Containment,” 73.