Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T23:11:38.409Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

For the Future Viewer: Salvage Ethnography and Edward Curtis's “The Oath – Apsaroke”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 March 2019

NICK YABLON
NICK YABLON*
Affiliation:
Department of History, University of Iowa. Email: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Since its reclamation in the 1970s, Edward S. Curtis's project to exhaustively photograph and describe American Indian cultures in the early twentieth century has invited shifting critical assessments. Complicating earlier arguments that it represents a nostalgic and inauthentic drama of a “vanishing” race, in which Indians functioned merely as props, recent scholars seek to recover his sitters’ agency or contemporary artists’ acts of reclamation. This article contributes to those efforts, but by exploring the temporal ambiguities inherent in the notion – then common among ethnographic photographers – of “preserving” a people for future viewers. It thus examines a photograph that Curtis contributed in 1913 to the Modern Historic Records Association, a short-lived organization that intended to assemble time capsules and archival vaults for historians in the distant future. Focussing on this single photograph – “The Oath – Apsaroke” (1908) – also allows us to track the way that Curtis's images could break free from his book project and resonate unpredictably across multiple domains, such as debates over the existence and meaning of Indian oaths.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of American Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , February 2021 , pp. 165 - 195
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and British Association for American Studies 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Curtis, Edward S., The North American Indian (hereafter NAI), 20 vols. and 20 portfolios (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1907–30), Volume IV, 24Google Scholar. Note that Curtis did not always copyright his photographs the same year that he took them.

2 Jacob W. Gruber appears to have coined the term, but dates the paradigm back to the late 1830s. Gruber, Jacob W., “Ethnographic Salvage and the Shaping of Anthropology,” American Anthropologist, new series, 72, 6 (1970), 1289–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Review of McKenney, Thomas L. and Hall, James, History of the Indian Tribes of North America, North American Review, 47 (July 1838), 134–38, 136Google Scholar. See also Mitchell, Lee Clark, Witnesses to a Vanishing America: The Nineteenth-Century Response (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), 117–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Ballerini, Julia, “Rewriting the Nubian Figure in the Photograph: Maxime du Camp's ‘Cultural Hypochrondia’,” in Hight, Eleanor M. and Sampson, Gary D., eds., Colonialist Photography: Imag(in)ing Race and Place (New York: Routledge, 2013), 30–50Google Scholar; Pinney, Christopher, The Coming of Photography in India (London: British Library, 2008)Google Scholar; [Shindler, A. Zeno], “Photographic Portraits of North American Indians in the Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution,” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 14 (1867), 1–42Google Scholar; Jackson, W. H., Descriptive Catalogue of Photographs of North American Indians (Washington, DC: GPO, 1877)Google Scholar.

5 See, e.g., Clifford, James, “The Others: Beyond the ‘Salvage’ Paradigm,” Third Text, 3, 6 (1989), 73–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Graybill, Florence Curtis and Boesen, Victor, Edward Sheriff Curtis: Visions of a Vanishing Race (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986; first published 1976)Google Scholar. Recent sympathetic treatments include Lawlor, Laurie, Shadow Catcher: The Life and Work of Edward S. Curtis (Omaha, NE: Bison Books, 2005)Google Scholar; Cardozo, Christopher, ed., Edward S. Curtis: One Hundred Masterworks, exhibition catalogue (New York: Prestel, 2015)Google Scholar.

7 Lyman, Christopher M., The Vanishing Race and Other Illusions: Photographs of Indians by Edward S. Curtis (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 1982)Google Scholar. Bill Holm questioned many of Lyman's claims, arguing, for instance, that there is just one “clear example of a Curtis-furnished prop” in NAI; see review of Lyman, , The Vanishing Race, American Indian Art Magazine, 8, 3 (1983), 68–73, 70Google Scholar.

8 Gidley, Mick, Edward S. Curtis and the North American Indian, Incorporated (New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 12Google Scholar. See also Wakeham, Pauline, Taxidermic Signs: Reconstructing Aboriginality (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 87–127Google Scholar.

9 Sandweiss, Martha A., “Picturing Indians: Curtis in Context,” in Kennedy, Martha H., ed., The Plains Indian Photographs of Edward S. Curtis (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), esp. 27–34Google Scholar; and Sandweiss, , Print the Legend: Photography and the American West (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 229–31Google Scholar. Curtis himself reported that “word passes from tribe to tribe” about his project, and that “tribes that I won't reach for four or five years yet have sent me word asking me to come and see them.” “Lives 22 Years with Indians to Get Their Secrets,” New York Times (hereafter NYT), 16 April, 1911, SM5.

10 Trachtenberg, Alan, Shades of Hiawatha: Staging Indians, Making Americans, 1880–1930 (New York: Hill & Wang, 2004), 204Google Scholar. Lyman, it must be said, did acknowledge instances of resistance, such as when Indians refused to perform for Curtis, or else offered inauthentic performances by subtly concealing the more sacred aspects or objects of their ceremonies or performing them backwards. Lyman, 45.

11 Zamir, Shamoon, The Gift of the Face: Portraiture and Time in Edward S. Curtis's The North American Indian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 133, 135Google Scholar.

12 Ibid., 139; Trachtenberg, 210. See also Evans, Brad and Glass, Aaron, eds., Return to the Land of the Head Hunters: Edward S. Curtis, the Kwakwaka'wakw, and the Making of Modern Cinema (Tacoma: University of Washington Press, 2014)Google Scholar.

13 Gidley, 283. See also Mick Gidley, “Ways of Seeing the Curtis Project on the Plains,” in Kennedy, 39–66, 50; Sandweiss, “Picturing Indians,” 31–32; Sandweiss, Print the Legend, 271; and Nanibush, Wanda, “Outside of Time: Salvage Ethnography, Self-Representation and Performing Culture,” in Agathangelou, Anna M. and Killian, Kyle D., eds., Time, Temporality and Violence in International Relations: (De)fatalizing the Present, Forging Radical Alternatives (London: Routledge, 2016), 104–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 On Aguilar see Siebert, Monika, Indians Playing Indian: Multiculturalism and Contemporary Indigenous Art in North America (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2015), 92–97, 114–15Google Scholar. Wendy Red Star's installation, Let Them Have Their Voice (2016), featuring silhouettes cut from copies of fifteen Curtis portraits, was one of several examples of such reappropriation included in Portland Art Museum's 2016 exhibition Contemporary Native Photographers and the Edward Curtis Legacy.

15 Zamir, 103.

16 Curtis, NAI, Volume I, xvi.

17 Catlin, George, Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians …, 2 vols. (London: Bohn, 1851), Volume I, 3Google Scholar.

18 See Yablon, Nick, “Posing for Posterity: Photographic Portraiture and the Invention of the Time Capsule, 1876–89,” History of Photography, 38, 4 (2014), 331–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 On Gidley's view of NAI as evolving over time rather than monolithic see Gidley, Edward S. Curtis, 11. Shannon Egan similarly traces a shift in aesthetic and ideological strategies in “‘Yet in a Primitive Condition’: Edward S. Curtis's The North American Indian,” American Art, 20, 3 (2006), 58–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 “Lives 22 Years with Indians to Get Their Secrets”; “Writing History with the Camera: The Photographic Work of Edward S. Curtis,” Photographic Times, 44, 4 (1912), 125–30, 130Google Scholar; “The Oath – Apsaroke” appears in ibid., 124. There is no discussion of this photograph in, for instance, Cardozo, Edward S. Curtis; Lyman, The Vanishing Race; or Zamir.

21 “Record of Our Time to Be Imperishable,” NYT, 10 Dec. 1911, 17.

22 See Yablon, Nick, Remembrance of Things Present: The Invention of the Time Capsule (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Untitled pamphlet detailing MHRA's aims (New York: MHRA, 1912), 2, 5, 7, 11, 6, Miscellaneous Personal Name Files, Box 73, miscellaneous file, New York Public Library (hereafter NYPL).

24 “Records for Posterity,” NYT, 13 July 1911, 8.

25 “Modern Historic Records,” Moving Picture News, 20 Jan. 1912, 13; “The Mayor in the ‘Movies’,” NYT, 6 May 1913, 20; see also “Moving Pictures to Revolutionize History,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 26 May 1912, SM6.

26 “Celebrities Write on Parchment for Future Ages,” NYT, 2 June 1912, SM9.

27 MHRA, “Message of the Records” (n.d. [c.1913]), MssCol 2025, NYPL.

28 The National Arts Club (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1915), 47Google Scholar.

29 “Celebrities Write On Parchment,” SM9. Robinson's, James Harvey The New History: Essays Illustrating the Modern Historical Outlook (New York: Macmillan, 1912)Google Scholar had just popularized the term.

30 See Fixico, Donald L., “Ethics and Reponsibilities in Writing American Indian History,” in Mihesuah, Devon Abbott, ed., Natives and Academics: Researching and Writing about American Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 84–99Google Scholar.

31 MHRA pamphlet, 13, emphasis in original.

32 Kunz, George, “The Imperishable Records of the Ancients, Compared with Methods in Use up to the Present Time,” Documents of the Assembly of the State of New York, 32, 59 (1912), 384–85Google Scholar. See Walters, Kim and Khanchalian, Michael, “Keeping Archaeology Alive: The Race against Time to Save the Lummis Sound Recordings,” Convergence (Winter 2009), 14–21Google Scholar.

33 “Chairman Konta's Views,” Talking Machine World, 8, 3 (1912), 25–26, 25Google Scholar.

34 Edward Curtis, “Outline of the North American Indian Project” (1906), at http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma02/daniels/curtis/proposal2.html, accessed May 2016.

35 On Curtis's use of those other media see Gidley, Edward S. Curtis, 199–230.

36 Alexander Konta, “Records of Indian Life,” Moving Picture News, 9 March 1912, 10.

37 See also Curtis's similar rhetoric in his “General Introduction” to NAI, Volume I, xvi–xvii.

38 See Harper, Kenn, Give Me My Father's Body: The Life of Minik, the New York Eskimo (New York: Washington Square Press, 2001; first published 1986), 94Google Scholar.

39 Curtis, NAI, Volume IV, 100, 200. Curtis's titles did often include names, especially in the case of individual portraits. Goes Ahead and Pretty Tail identified in Library of Congress catalog. The Center of the West catalog, however, identifies them as Coyote Runs and Plain Bull, and the oath taker as Slow Bull.

40 Curtis, NAI, Portfolio 3, Plate 91, caption.

41 Gidley, “Ways of Seeing the Curtis Project,” 52.

42 Curtis, Edward S., “Vanishing Indian Types: The Tribes of the Northwest Plains,” Scribner's, 39, 6 (1906), 657–71, 657Google Scholar, original emphasis.

43 Curtis, NAI, Volume I, xv.

44 Ibid., Volume IV, 40–41.

45 Grant was lieutenant colonel in the Yellowstone Expedition of 1873, in George Armstrong Custer's Black Hills expedition of 1874, and in the Bannock War of 1878; Brainard fought in several Indian wars of the late 1870s.

46 On Curtis's visit to the battlefield see Brust, James S., Pohanka, Brian C., and Barnard, Sandy, Where Custer Fell: Photographs of the Little Bighorn Battlefield Then and Now (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 70–71Google Scholar. On Roosevelt's advice, Curtis abandoned his book on Custer; his notes were only later published as The Papers of Edward S. Curtis Relating to Custer's Last Battle, ed. Hutchins, James S. (El Segundo, CA: Upton & Sons, 2000)Google Scholar. Full-page portrait of Goes Ahead in NAI, Volume IV, facing page 100; and in Dixon, Joseph Kossuth, The Vanishing Race (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1913), 130Google Scholar. On nostalgic fascination with such living links to Little Bighorn see Dippie, Brian W., Custer's Last Stand: The Anatomy of an American Myth (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), esp. 69–88Google Scholar.

47 Marshall, Edward, “Vanishing Red Man,” Hampton Magazine, 24, 4 (1912), 245–53, 308, 246Google Scholar.

48 “Writing History with the Camera,” 128; “The Oath – Apsaroke” appears at 124. On Curtis's embrace of salvage ethnography see Gidley, Edward S. Curtis, 22, 75, 102.

49 Reedy, William M. quoted in “A Plan for the Preservation of Historic Records,” Catholic Fortnightly Review, 18, 18 (1911), 533–34, 533Google Scholar.

50 Hochman, Brian, Savage Preservation: The Ethnographic Origins of Modern Media Technology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014), 1–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 Kunz, “The Imperishable Records of the Ancients,” 384.

52 Ehrich, Louis, “Posteritism”: An Address Delivered at the Dedication Exercises of the Century Chest, on August 4th, 1901 (Colorado Springs: privately printed, 1901), 7Google Scholar, Louis Rinaldo Ehrich Papers (MS 1349), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

53 Henderson, Alice Palmer, The Rainbow's End: Alaska (New York: Herbert S. Stone, 1898), 143Google Scholar.

54 Dodge, Richard Irving, Our Wild Indians: Thirty-three Years’ Personal Experience Among the Red Men of the Great West (Hartford, CT: Worthington, 1882), 248, 398Google Scholar. This deduction of atemporality from (supposed) linguistic evidence culminated in Benjamin Lee Whorf's thesis about the Hopi in “The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior to Language” (1939), in Spier, Leslie, Hallowell, A. Irving, and Newman, Stanley S., eds., Language, Culture and Personality: Essays in Memory of Edward Sapir (Menasha, WI: Sapir Memorial Publication Fund, 1941), 75–93Google Scholar, which elicited numerous critiques. For a recent corrective see Wells, Cheryl A., “‘Why[,] These Children Are Not Really Indians’: Race, Time, and Indian Authenticity,” American Indian Quarterly, 39, 1 (2015), 1–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Margaret T. Adams, handwritten letter, 4–5, Folder 92, Colorado Springs Century Chest Collection, Tutt Library Special Collections, Colorado College.

56 Two Leggings's authobiography, narrated via an Apsáalooke interpreter to William Wildschut between 1919 and 1923, was later published as Two Leggings: The Making of a Crow Warrior, ed. Nabokov, Peter (New York: Crowell, 1967)Google Scholar; Albright, Peggy, Crow Indian Photographer: The Work of Richard Throssel (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997)Google Scholar. See also Plenty Coups's autobiography, dictated to Frank B. Linderman in 1927 and published as American: The Life Story of a Great Indian, Plenty-Coups, Chief of the Crows (New York: John Day, 1931)Google Scholar; and Linderman, Frank B., Pretty-Shield: Medicine Woman of the Crows (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1932)Google Scholar.

57 Curtis, NAI, Volume IV, 42.

58 Curtis quoted in Graybill, Florence Curtis and Boesen, Victor, Visions of a Vanishing Race (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986; first published 1976), 13Google Scholar.

59 The ninth volume, on the Salish peoples of the Northwest, appeared later that year (1913). Curtis, letter to Belle da Costa Greene, 21 March 1913, quoted in DeWall, Beth Barclay, “Edward Sheriff Curtis: A New Perspective on The North American Indian,” History of Photography, 6, 3 (1982), 223–39, 238CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 H. G. Wells, signed autograph statement, written in ink on vellum, prepared for the MHRA [c.1911], Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign.

61 Smith, Sherry L., Reimagining Indians: Native Americans through Anglo Eyes, 1880–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 121, 126–27, 134–38Google Scholar. Smith acknowledges that Lummis was also prone to “demoniz[e]” or “infantiliz[e]” Indians (120).

62 MHRA card (entrusted to Richard Welling), Miscellaneous Personal Name Files, Box 73, miscellaneous file, NYPL.

63 Gidley, Edward S. Curtis, 23, 74, 280, refers to it as the project's “keynote,” and Sandweiss, Print the Legend, 219, as its “signature image.”

64 Curtis, NAI, Portfolio 4, Plate 122, caption.

65 See Lyman, The Vanishing Race, 82–85, et passim; but also Gidley, Edward S. Curtis, 69–70, 273–74; Trachtenberg, Shades of Hiawatha, 176.

66 Cobb, Amanda J., “The Museum of the American Indian as Cultural Sovereignty,” American Quarterly, 57, 2 (2005), 485–506, 499CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Ewers, John Canfield, Plains Indian History and Culture: Essays on Continuity and Change (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997), 48–50Google Scholar.

67 Gidley, Edward S. Curtis, 276; Cronon, William, “Telling Tales on Canvas: Landscapes of Frontier Change,” in Prown, Jules David, Anderson, Nancy K., Cronon, William, Dippie, Brian W., Sandweiss, Martha A., Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast, and Lamar, Howard R., Discovered Lands, Invented Pasts: Transforming Visions of the American West (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 37–87, 56Google Scholar. Lyman's suggestion that such objects were included because they were “common in popular imagery” (Lyman, 52) is unconvincing, as Curtis conceived his photographs against popular imagery.

68 The “oath” in the title thus distinguishes it from his other photographs of spiritual supplication, discussed above.

69 Tyler, James Endell, Oaths: Their Origin, Nature, and History, 2nd edn (London: John W. Parker, 1835), 237Google Scholar.

70 McCarthy, J. J., “Perjury in Judicial Proceedings,” American Law Review, 35 (1901), 684–97, 685Google Scholar.

71 Boas, Franz, The Mind of Primitive Man (New York: Macmillan, 1921; first published 1911), 291 n., 169Google Scholar.

72 Rosen, Deborah A., American Indians and State Law: Sovereignty, Race, and Citizenship, 1790–1880 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), 109, 121–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 Phillip H. Sheridan, letter, 16 Feb. 1884, in Report of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 19 March 1884, Reports of Committees of the Senate of the United States for the First Session of the Forty-Eighth Congress, 1883–84, 7 vols. (Washington: GPA, 1884), Volume VII, 387Google Scholar.

74 Simms, S. C., “Oath by the Arrow,” American Anthropologist, 5, 4 (1903), 733–34Google Scholar. Oaths were also identified in other Plains tribes, such as the Cheyenne and Blackfoot; see Grinnell, George Bird, “Coup and Scalp among the Plains Indians,” American Anthropologist, 12, 2 (1910), 299–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wissler, Clark, “The Social Life of the Blackfoot Indians,” Anthropological Papers of American Museum of Natural History, 7, 1 (1911), 1–176, 51Google Scholar. Richard Lasch documented the oath in African (and some Indian) tribes in Der Eid (Stuttgart: Verlag von Strecker & Schröder, 1908).

75 Curtis, “Indian Religion” (lecture, 1911), in Edward S. Curtis and the North American Indian Project in the Field, ed. Gidley, Mick (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), 137–41, 138Google Scholar.

76 Simms, 733.

77 Agamben, Giorgio, The Sacrament of Language: An Archaeology of the Oath (Homo Sacer II, 3), trans. Kotsko, Adam (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 28, 59, 65Google Scholar, et passim. An early example was Sir Henry Sumner Maine's claim, “There is no system of recorded law … which when it first emerges into notice is not seen to be entangled with religious ritual and observances.” Quoted in Thayer, Albert S., “Sacramental Features of Ancient and Modern Law,” Harvard Law Review, 14 (1901), 509–24, 510–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 See, e.g., Moore, Benjamin P., “The Passing of the Oath,” American Law Review, 37 (July–Aug. 1903), 554–68Google Scholar.

79 Holmes, Oliver Wendell Jr., The Common Law (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Company, 1881), 247Google Scholar.

80 Glotz, Gustave, “The Ordeal and the Oath,” in Kocourek, Albert and Wigmore, John H., eds., The Evolution of Law, 3 vols. (1915–18), Volume III, 609–37, 625, 629Google Scholar.

81 Lowie, Robert, “Social Life of the Crow Indians,” Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 9, 2 (1912), 176–253, 238Google Scholar.

82 Eg. Beard, Dan, “Sa-go-ye-wat-ha! Some Wit-Sharpeners for Live Scouts and Some Indian Tales,” Boy's Life, 6, 2 (1916), 18–19Google Scholar; anon., “The Obligation,” American Tyler: Devoted to Freemasonry …, 18, 1 (1903), 423–24Google Scholar; and, on earlier appropriations, Carnes, Mark C., Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 95–100Google Scholar.

83 Ryan, Marah Ellis, The Flute of the Gods, illustrated by Curtis, Edward S. (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1909), frontispiece; oath scene at 120Google Scholar.

84 “More History with the Camera,” Photographic Times, 44, 6 (1912), 208Google Scholar; Photographic Times identified the men as Blackfoot. On Dixon's expeditions to Crow Agency, and his larger career, see Trachtenberg, Shades of Hiawatha, 211–77.

85 “The Song of the Arrows” and “The Last Arrow” appear in Dixon, The Vanishing Race, facing pages 124 and 133 respectively. The latter was used to illustrate an anonymous article about Lane's ceremony, entitled “The Last Arrow,” Case and Comment, 23, 9 (1917), 701Google Scholar.

86 Edward S. Curtis, letter to Franklin Lane, 5 May 1915, 1, 2, Major James McLaughlin Papers, Microfilm Roll 6, frames 99, 100, State Historical Society of South Dakota.

87 Curtis, NAI, Volume IV, 12–13, 24.

88 Lear, Jonathan, Radical Hope: Ethics in the Face of Cultural Devastation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 35Google Scholar.

89 On the new assimilationist policy see especially Hoxie, Frederick E., A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984)Google Scholar.

90 Demallie, Raymond J., “The Great Treaty Council at Horse Creek,” in Harjo, Suzan Shown, ed., Nation to Nation: Treaties between the United States and American Indian Nations (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2014), 89–111, 104Google Scholar.

91 Bradley, James H., “Journal of James H. Bradley: The Sioux Campaign of 1876 under the Command of General John Gibbon,” Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana, 2 (1896), 140–228, 163Google Scholar.

92 Wilkins, David E. and Lightfoot, Sheryl, “Oaths of Office in Tribal Constitutions: Swearing Allegiance, but to Whom?” American Indian Quarterly, 32, 4 (2008), 389–411, 395–96Google Scholar, late nineteenth-century examples at 395–99, wampum pledge at 394–95.

93 Simms, “Oath by Arrow,” 733.

94 Teller, H. M., “Court of Indian Offenses” (1882), in Regulations of the Indian Department (Washington: GPO: 1883), 87, 86Google Scholar. The court was established on the Apsáalooke reservation in 1901, according to Hoxie, Frederick E., Parading through History: The Making of the Crow Nation in America 1805–1935 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 309Google Scholar.

95 Austin, Justice Raymond D., “American Indian Customary Law in the Modern Courts of American Indian Nations,” Wyoming Law Review, 11, 2 (2011), 351–73, 358Google Scholar.

96 On the complexity of the CIO see Hoxie, Frederick E., “Crow Leadership amidst Reservation Oppression,” in Castile, George Pierre and Bee, Robert L., eds., State and Reservation: New Perspectives on Federal Indian Policy (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992), 38–60Google Scholar; and Harring, Sidney L., Crow Dog's Case: American Indian Sovereignty, Tribal Law, and United States (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

97 “An American Pantheon Suggested,” New York Observer and Chronicle, 7 Sept. 1911, 313; “Record of Our Time,” 17.

98 Kunz, “Imperishable Records of the Ancients,” 383–84; “American Pantheon,” 313.

99 Materials relating to Konta's appearance before the Senate in 1918, Reel 4241, frames 616–909, National Arts Club Records, 1898–1960, Smithsonian Archives of American Art, Washington, DC.

100 The NYPL confirmed receipt in Bulletin of New York Public Library, 17 (1913), 118Google Scholar.

101 Prins, Harald E. L., review, American Anthropologist, 102, 4 (2000), 895CrossRefGoogle Scholar.