No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Defenders of Patriotism or Mothers of Fascism? The Daughters of the American Revolution, Antiradicalism, and Un-Americanism in the Interwar Period
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 August 2013
Abstract
Focussing on the nationalist women's organization Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), this article seeks to make an important contribution to the historiography of un-Americanism by exploring its gendered dimensions as well as its ambiguities in the interwar period. By the early 1920s, the DAR boasted a membership of 140,000. It was during this period that the organization became the vanguard of a post-World War I antiradical movement that sought to protect the United States from the dangers of “un-American” ideologies, chief among them socialism and communism. Given the DAR's visibility and prominence during the interwar period, the organization constitutes a useful case study to analyze notions of un-Americanism between World War I and World War II. A thorough analysis of the Daughters' rhetoric and activities in the 1920s and 1930s reveals three things: (1) the importance of gender in understanding what patriotic women's organizations such as the DAR feared when they warned of “un-Americanism”; (2) the antimodern impulse of nationalist women's efforts to combat un-American activities, which is closely related to its gender dimension; and (3) the ambiguity of the term “un-American,” since it was used by the DAR and its liberal detractors alike to criticize each other.
- Type
- Un-American Articles
- Information
- Journal of American Studies , Volume 47 , Issue 4: The “Un-American” , November 2013 , pp. 943 - 969
- Copyright
- Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013
References
1 Minor, Ann Rogers, “A Message from the President General,” DAR Magazine, June 1922, 334–35Google Scholar.
2 Quoted in “Ousted for War on ‘Blacklist’ Order of D.A.R.,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 12 Nov. 1928, 22.
3 See Delegard, Kirsten Marie, Battling Miss Bolsheviki: The Origins of Female Conservatism in the United States (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Arsenault, Raymond, The Sound of Freedom: Marian Anderson, The Lincoln Memorial, and the Concert That Awakened America (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Morgan, Francesca, Women and Patriotism in Jim Crow America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Medlicott, Carol, “Constructing Territory, Constructing Citizenship: The Daughters of the American Revolution and ‘Americanisation’ in the 1920s,” Geopolitics, 10 (2005), 99–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Erickson, Christine K., “‘So Much for Men’: Conservative Women and National Defense in the 1920s and 1930s,” American Studies, 45 (Spring 2004), 85–102Google Scholar; Nielsen, Kim E., Un-American Womanhood: Antiradicalism, Antifeminism, and the First Red Scare (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Kirsten Marie Delegard, “Women Patriots: Female Activism and the Politics of American Anti-radicalism, 1919–1935,” PhD dissertation, Duke University, 1999; Francesca Constance Morgan, “‘Home and Country’: Women, Nation, and the Daughters of the American Revolution, 1890–1939,” PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 1998; Black, Allida, “Championing a Champion: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Marian Anderson ‘Freedom Concert,’” Presidential Studies Quarterly, 20 (Fall 1990), 719–36Google Scholar; Jensen, Joan M., “All Pink Sisters: The War Department and the Feminist Movement in the 1920s,” in Scharf, Lois and Jensen, Joan M., eds., Decades of Discontent: The Women's Movement, 1920–1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983), 199–222Google Scholar.
4 On the differences between and the theoretical debates about civic and ethnic nationalism see Brown, David, “The Ethnic Majority: Benign or Malign?”, Nations and Nationalism, 14 (2008), 768–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brown, , “Are There Good and Bad Nationalisms?”, Nations and Nationalism, 5 (1999), 281–302CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 On the early history of the DAR see Davis, Wallace Evan, Patriotism on Parade: The Story of Veterans’ and Hereditary Organizations in America, 1783–1900 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955)Google Scholar; Morgan, “Home and Country,” 34–61. Today the DAR continues to be the largest patriotic hereditary women's organization in the United States, claiming to have 168,000 members in three thousand chapters in the United States and abroad. For more information on the organization's current membership numbers, see the DAR's website: www.dar.org/natsociety/whoweare.cfm.
6 On the increasing militancy of the DAR's nationalism after World War I see Morgan, Women and Patriotism in Jim Crow America; Nielsen.
7 O'Leary, Cecilia Elizabeth, To Die For: The Paradox of American Patriotism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 3–6Google Scholar, 7.
8 Erickson, 86; Powers, Richard Gid, Not without Honor: The History of American Anticommunism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 10–11Google Scholar.
9 Lemons, J. Stanley, The Woman Citizen: Social Feminism in the 1920s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973), 210–11Google Scholar.
10 Nielsen, 2.
11 Morgan, Women and Patriotism in Jim Crow America, 87; Morgan, “Home and Country,” 301.
12 “Address of State Regent at Macon Conference,” Atlanta Constitution, 22 Feb. 1914, B2; “Serve Defense League,” Washington Post, 15 Aug. 1915, 11; “National Preparedness,” Boston Daily Globe, 16 Nov. 1915, 5; Morgan, Women and Patriotism in Jim Crow America, 104–10; “D.A.R. Congress Ends,” Washington Post, 20 April 1919, 6.
13 Powers, 18–33.
14 Ibid., 41–78.
15 Capt. George L. Darte (Adjutant-General Military Order of the World War), “Address on Subversive Influences before the Daughters of the American Revolution Congress, Washington, D. C., April 21, 1927,” Folder “Printed Materials – Attack on Florence Kelley, 1927,” Box 12, Florence Kelley Papers, New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, New York.
16 See, for example, Minor, “A Message from the President General,” 334–35; Mrs. William Sherman Walker, “Why Patriotic Organizations Should Protect Our American Institutions from the Menace of Radicalism,” reprint from DAR Magazine, April 1929, Folder “D.A.R. National Defense Committee Materials,” Box 17, Henry Joy Bourne Scrapbooks, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI; Nellie N. Somerville, “Americanism: What It Was, Is, and Should Be,” Address to Belvidere Chapter D.A.R., Greenville, 22 Jan. 1944, Folder 45, Nellie Nugent Somerville Papers, Somerville-Howorth Family Papers, Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
17 Quoted in Myra Nye, “Radicalism in Clubs Scored,” Los Angeles Times, 17 Nov. 1926, A9.
18 Quoted in “D.A.R. Chief for Ruthless Knife on Alien Cancer,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 20 April 1920, 5.
19 On the DAR's Americanization campaigns see Medlicott, “Constructing Territory, Constructing Citizenship,” 99–120; Morgan, “Home and Country,” 219–61; McClymer, John F., “Gender and the ‘American Way of Life’: Women in the Americanization Movement,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 10 (Spring 1991), 3–20Google Scholar.
20 Quoted in “Thirty-First D.A.R. Congress Is Opened in Washington,” Christian Science Monitor, 17 April 1922, 2.
21 See, for example, Nye, A9.
22 Nielsen, Un-American Womanhood, 2.
23 Erickson, “‘So Much for Men,’” 93; Morgan, “Home and Country,” 292–98. On Republican Motherhood see Kerber, Linda K., “The Republican Mother and the Woman Citizen: Contradictions and Choices in Revolutionary America,” in Kerber, Linda K. and Sherron De Hart, Jane, eds., Women's America: Refocusing the Past, 6th edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 119–27Google Scholar; Nash, Margaret A., “Rethinking Republican Motherhood: Benjamin Rush and the Young Ladies’ Academy of Philadelphia,” Journal of the Early Republic, 17 (Summer 1997), 171–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Norton, Mary Beth, Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750–1800 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980)Google Scholar.
24 Quoted in “Hereditary Patriots Meet,” Los Angeles Times, 29 Feb.1928, A1.
25 Walker.
26 On the New Woman see Richardson, Angelique and Willis, Chris, eds., The New Woman in Fiction and Fact: Fin-de-Siècle Feminisms (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001)Google Scholar; Patterson, Martha H., Beyond the Gibson Girl: Reimagining the American New Woman, 1895–1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Patterson, Martha H., ed., The American New Woman Revisited: A Reader, 1894–1930 (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008)Google Scholar.
27 Quoted in “Daughters of the Revolution,” New York Times, 23 Feb. 1896, 12.
28 See “Daughters of Patriots,” Boston Daily Globe, 26 Sept. 1895, 3; Mrs. Fassenden, Benjamin A., “Woman, Teacher of Patriotism,” American Monthly Magazine, July 1905, 8–13Google Scholar; “Daughters of the Revolution,” Washington Post, 15 Feb. 1898, 6; “All the Woman's Club News of Georgia,” Atlanta Constitution, 16 July 1905, D6; “Women as Patriots,” American Monthly Magazine, Nov. 1897, 584.
29 For more information on the DAR's efforts to commemorate the contributions of women to American nation-building see Wendt, Simon, “Nationalist Middle-Class Women, Memory, and Conservative Family Values, 1890–1945,” in Heinemann, Isabel, ed., Gender Roles and the Family: Changing Values and Norms in 20th-Century United States (Frankfurt: Campus, 2012), 33–60Google Scholar.
30 Quoted in Campbell, Amelia Day, “The Pilgrim Tercentenary at Provincetown, Mass., 1620–1920,” DAR Magazine, Dec. 1920, 705Google Scholar.
31 Quoted in “Dedication of Pilgrim Memorial Fountain at Plymouth, Massachusetts, June 24, 1925,” DAR Magazine, Sept. 1925, 535, 536 537.
32 On this tradition see Snyder, Claire R., Citizen-Soldiers and Manly Warriors: Military Service and Gender in the Civic Republican Tradition (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999)Google Scholar.
33 “Report of War Work of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution during the Great World War from August 14, 1914–November 11, 1918,” 5–6, Box 33, Papers of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Michigan Society, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
34 Mary S. Lockwood, “League of White Feather Leads Youth to Disloyalty,” Washington Post, 19 July 1915, 5; “D.A.R. Call to Colors,” Washington Post, 2 April 1917, 5.
35 “Pacifists in the D.A.R.,” Washington Post, 15 April 1928, S1.
36 Morgan, “Home and Country,” 353, 360, 405.
37 “Patriotic Work Praised by James J. Davis,” Washington Post, 19 April 1928, 1.
38 Morgan, Women and Patriotism in Jim Crow America, 137, 141; Morgan, “Home and Country,” 432–34.
39 See “D.A.R. Policy on ‘Blacklist’ Draws Censure,” Christian Science Monitor, 2 April 1928, 1; “Says Bay State D.A.R. Blacklists Liberals,” New York Times, 2 April 1928, 1; “Pamphlet Attacks D.A.R. Leadership,” New York Times, 9 April 1928, 1; “D.A.R. Head Replies to Critics of Order,” New York Times, 15 April 1928, 18; “New Signs Hint at D.A.R. Fight,” Los Angeles Times, 19 April 1928, 6; “D.A.R. Blacklist Existence Denied by Mrs. Brosseau,” Washington Post, 21 April 1928, 3; “Attacks on D.A.R. Leadership Meet Crushing Defeat,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 21 April 1928, 17; “D.A.R. Punishes Insurgent and then Adjourns,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 22 April 1928, 22; “D.A.R. Drops Mrs. Bailie, Accused of Injuring Good Name of Body in Blacklist Charges,” New York Times, 23 June 1928, 1.
40 “D.A.R. Is Urged to Give Source of ‘Red’ Warning,” Christian Science Monitor, 13 March 1928, 1.
41 “Wife of Bishop Seeks Origin of D.A.R. Blacklist,” Christian Science Monitor, 16 March 1928, 2.
42 Jones, M. Ashby, “Text and Pretext,” Atlanta Constitution, 15 April 1928, 14AGoogle Scholar. See also Sam W. Small, “Looking and Listening,” Atlanta Constitution, 10 April 1928, 10.
43 Quoted in Bullard, F. Lauriston, “Boston Minister Decries ‘Espionage,’” New York Times, 1 April 1928, 55Google Scholar.
44 Mary P. MacFarland to the National Board of Management, DAR, 28 Sept. 1928, Folder 6, Box 1, DAR Blacklist Controversy Collection, Stanford University, Special Collections & University Archives, Stanford, CA.
45 See, for example, Oregon Lewis and Clark Chapter D.A.R. to Dear Madam, 17 April 1928, Folder 5, Box 1, DAR Blacklist Controversy Collection; “We, The Undersigned,” 15 May 1930, Folder 4, Box 1, DAR Blacklist Controversy Collection.
46 “D.A.R. Pained by Charges of Klan Leanings,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 29 March 1928, 25; “Mrs. Bailie Takes Case to Delegates,” New York Times, 15 April 1928, 28; “White Sees Klan Nightie under D.A.R. Petticoat,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 6 April 1928, 37. See also “Urges New Society to Offset D.A.R.,” New York Times, 23 April 1928, 30.
47 “Uplift of Indians Is Urged on D.A.R.,” Washington Post, 21 April 1921, 1.
48 Medlicott, Carol, “One Social Milieu, Paradoxical Responses: A Geographical Reexamination of the Ku Klux Klan and the Daughters of the American Revolution in the Early Twentieth Century,” in Flint, Colin, ed., Spaces of Hate: Geographies of Discrimination and Intolerance in the U.S.A. (New York: Routledge, 2004), 21–47Google Scholar.
49 Flora A. Walker, “Confidential Memorandum for D.A.R. Members Only,” Folder “Newspaper Clippings, 1929,” Box 7, Papers of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Michigan Society – Sarah Caswell Angell Chapter, Ann Arbor, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
50 Quoted in “Loyal Americans Urged for Schools,” Washington Post, 4 Sept. 1921, 2.
51 Flora A. Walker to the Committee, 8 April 1928, Folder 5, Box 1, DAR Blacklist Controversy Collection. See also “D.A.R. Regent Defends Issue of ‘Blacklists,’” Christian Science Monitor, 5 April 1928, 5.
52 Elaine Goodale Eastman, “Are D.A.R. Women Exploited?”, reprint from Christian Century, 11 Sept. 1929, Folder 1, Box 1, DAR Blacklist Controversy Collection, University of Stanford Archives, Stanford, CA.
53 “Minutes of Regular and Special Meetings of the Denver Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution” (1927–30), entry “May 11–1928,” Denver DAR Chapter Collection, Box 1, Folder 16, Denver Public Library, Denver, CO; Elaine Goodale Eastman to Dear Member, 10 Aug. 1928, Folder 2, Box 1, DAR Blacklist Controversy Collection.
54 See “D.A.R. Members Quit, to Protest Its Blacklist,” Christian Science Monitor, 3 May 1928, 1; “Members of D.A.R. Resign as Protest against Blacklist,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 29 May 1928, 29; “We, The Undersigned,” 15 May 1930, Folder 4, Box 1, DAR Blacklist Controversy Collection; “D.A.R. Loses Leading Light,” Los Angeles Times, 7 June 1930, A16; “New D.A.R. Exodus in State Looming,” Daily Palo Alto Times, 20 May, 1930, 1; “D.A.R. Walkout Threatened by Californians,” San Francisco Chronicle, 20 May, 1930, 1. Previous studies on the blacklist controversy have come to similar conclusions. See Morgan, Women and Patriotism in Jim Crow America, 139–40; Morgan, “Home and Country,” 366, 372, 441–43, 447, 451.
55 “Women's Patriotic Conference Hears Cruisers Speeches,” Washington Post, 31 Jan. 1929, 22.
56 Florence H. Becker to Dear Members, 1 Sept. 1932, National Republic Records, Reel 139, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
57 “D.A.R. Opens New Attack on Radicals,” Christian Science Monitor, 23 April 1936, 1.
58 “Press Release for Sunday, August 9, 1936,” Folder “D.A.R. National Defense Committee Materials,” Box 17, Henry Joy Bourne Scrapbooks.
59 “D.A.R. Urges ‘More Genuine’ Americanism,” Denver Post, 23 March 1938, 1.
60 “Dies Group Hears D.A.R. Plea for ‘Revival of Americanism,’” Christian Science Monitor, 9 Dec. 1938, 2.
61 Crete Cage, “D.A.R. Vital to Dies Group,” Los Angeles Times, 19 Jan. 1939, A8.
62 Arsenault, Sound of Freedom, 90; Weiss, Nancy J., Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 257–62Google Scholar.
63 Powers, Not without Honor, 154–156.
64 McEnaney, Laura, “He-Men and Christian Mothers: The America First Movement and the Gendered Meanings of Patriotism and Isolationism,” Diplomatic History, 18 (Winter 1994), 47–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
65 See “Adequate National Defense,” DAR Magazine, Feb. 1936, 98–100; Sisson, Adelaide Howe, “The Road to Peace,” DAR Magazine, Aug. 1937, 740–41Google Scholar; “Mrs. Pouch Offers D.A.R. Services, National Historical Magazine, Aug. 1941, 35–36; “The President General's Message,” National Historical Magazine, Feb. 1942, 83–84.
66 Quoted in “Mrs. Roosevelt Indicates She has Resigned from D.A.R. over Refusal of Hall to Negro,” New York Times, 28 Feb. 1939, 1.
67 Dr. S. P. Rosenthal to Mrs. Henry M. Robert Jr., 14 March 1939, Folder 1, Box II L2, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Records, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
68 Quoted in “Marian Anderson Arouses Wide Protest,” Crisis, March 1939, 87. For a similar letter see Johnson, Robert F., “The Marian Anderson Episode,” Washington Post, 27 Feb. 1939, 8Google Scholar.
69 For a comprehensive study of the tensions between ethnic and civic nationalism in twentieth-century America see Gerstle, Gary, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.
70 Quoted in Fleming, James G., “Southern Newspaper Editorial Opinion on the Marian Anderson–D.A.R. Affair,” Negro History Bulletin, 14 (Dec. 1950), 68–72, 68Google Scholar.
71 Ibid., 68, 70.
72 “Minute Book, 1932–1940,” entry 16 March 1939, Box 1, Papers of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Michigan Society – Sarah Caswell Angell Chapter (Ann Arbor, MI); “Records,” entry on “Nov. 12–45,” Papers of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Michigan Society – Lewis Cass Chapter, Escabana, Records 1909–72; “Charles Meseroll Chapter D.A.R.: Records,” entry on 5 Nov. 1945, Charles Meseroll Chapter Minutes, 1941–65, Papers of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Michigan Society.
73 “Shuns Anderson Protest,” New York Times, 20 March 1939, 17.
74 Quoted in “Bishop Calls D.A.R. Mother of Fascism,” Chicago Defender, 25 March 1939, 6.
75 Quoted in “Rep. Gavagan Calls Anderson Ban Fascistic,” Washington Post, 1 March 1939, 3. See also Joseph A. Gavagan to Mrs. Henry M. Robert Jr., 17 April 1939, Folder 2, Box 1, Marian Anderson–D.A.R. Controversy Collection, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, DC.
76 Sandage, Scott A., “A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939–1963,” Journal of American History, 80 (June 1993), 135–67, 147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
77 See, for example, “Throng Honors Marian Anderson in Concert at Lincoln Memorial,” New York Times, 10 April 1939, 15; Sadler, Christine, “D.A.R. Urged to Lead Way to Racial Co-operation,” Washington Post, 21 April 1939, 1Google Scholar; “The D.A.R. Alibi,” Pittsburgh Courier, 29 April 1939, 10; White, Walter, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White (New York: Viking Press, 1948), 180–92Google Scholar.
78 “30th Annual Conference in Richmond, Virginia,” Crisis, Sept. 1939, 281.
79 See “Mrs. Roosevelt Hears Marian Anderson Sing in D.A.R. Hall for China Relief Fund,” New York Times, 8 Jan. 1943, 24; “Charges Racial Bias,” New York Times, 1 Oct. 1945, 25; “D.A.R. to Keep Ban on Negro Use of Hall,” Washington Post, 13 Oct. 1945, 3; “DAR Demands Race Purity,” Chicago Defender, 30 March 1946, 3.
80 “Threat to Quit D.A.R. Voiced by Rep. Luce,” Los Angeles Times, 14 Oct. 1945, 3; “Protest Mounts against DAR Racist Policy,” Chicago Defender, 27 Oct. 1945, 1; “D.A.R. Head Affirms Stand of Group on Negro Issue,” Christian Science Monitor, 3 Dec. 1945, 13; Grace L. H. Brosseau to Dear Mrs. Luce, 14 Nov. 1945, Folder “D.A.R.,” Reel 471, National Republic Records; Clare Boothe Luce to Dear Mrs. (blank), 27 March 1946, Folder “D.A.R.,” Reel 471, National Republic Records; “For Release upon Delivery,” 21 Feb. 1946, Folder 7, Box 680, Clare Boothe Luce Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; Greenbaum, Lucy, “D.A.R. Vote Orders Dissolution of the Luce Anti-bias Committee,” New York Times, 22 May 1946, 23Google Scholar; “D.A.R. Applauds Cancelling of Move for Racial Equality,” Christian Science Monitor, 23 May 1946, 3.
81 See “The DAR Racial Policy,” Daily Defender, 24 April 1963, 12; “Black Woman in Daughters of America,” New York Amsterdam News, 31 Dec. 1977, B6; “DAR Welcomes Its First Black,” Chicago Tribune, 4 Dec. 1977, 3.
82 Mrs. Talmadge, Julius Y., “Communism Spreading, Mrs. Talmadge Warns,” Atlanta Journal, 22 May 1947, 10Google Scholar.
83 Dorothea Andrews, “DAR Congress Votes War on Communism,” Washington Post, 21 April 1948, 1.
84 Ibid. “Outlaw Reds, DAR Board Asks Truman,” Washington Post, 18 Oct. 1952, 16; Coolbaugh, Osie Smith, “Our Most Powerful Weapon of Defense,” DAR Magazine, July 1953, 395Google Scholar; “Communist Spies inside U. S. Government,” DAR Magazine, Nov. 1953, 1213–16.
85 Reynolds, Katherine G., “National Defense,” DAR Magazine, April 1953, 539–41Google Scholar; Hoover, J. Edgar, “The Challenge,” DAR Magazine, Feb. 1950, 95Google Scholar; Hoover, “The War on Reds Is a Full-Time Job,” DAR Magazine, Dec. 1953, 1269, 1272.
86 Patton, Marguerite C., “National Defense,” DAR Magazine, March 1954, 241Google Scholar.
87 Kendall, Elaine, “The Daughters,” New York Times, 4 Aug. 1974, 241Google Scholar.
88 For more information on the role of DAR members and similarly minded conservative white women in this movement see, for example, Spruill, Marjorie J., “Gender and America's Right Turn,” in Schulman, Bruce J. and Zelizer, Julian E., eds., Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 71–89Google Scholar; Critchlow, Donald T., Phyllis Schlafly and Grassroots Conservatism: A Woman's Crusade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005)Google Scholar.