Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T23:53:25.922Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Transatlantic Delusions and Pro-slavery Religion: Isaac Nelson's Evangelical Abolitionist Critique of Revivalism in America and Ulster

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 February 2014

DANIEL RITCHIE
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article considers the arguments of one evangelical anti-slavery advocate in order to freshly examine the relationship between abolitionism and religious revivalism. Although it has often been thought that evangelicals were wholly supportive of revivals, the Reverend Isaac Nelson rejected the 1857–58 revival in the United States and the 1859 revival in Ulster partly owing to the link between these movements and pro-slavery religion. Nelson was no insignificant figure in Irish abolitionism, as his earlier efforts to promote emancipation through the Belfast Anti-Slavery Society, and in opposition to compromise in the Free Church of Scotland and at the Evangelical Alliance, received the approbation of various high-profile American abolitionists. Unlike other opponents of revivals, Nelson was not attacking them from a perspective which was heterodox or anti-evangelical. Hence his critique of revivalism is highly significant from both an evangelical and an abolitionist point of view. The article surveys Nelson's assessment of the link between revivalism and pro-slavery religion in America, before considering his specific complaints against the revival which occurred in 1857–58 and its Ulster counterpart the following year.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of American Studies , Volume 48 , Issue 3 , August 2014 , pp. 757 - 776
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Douglass, Frederick, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave. Written by Himself (Boston, MA: Anti-Slavery Office, 1845), 119–20Google Scholar.

2 Isaac Nelson to Frederick Douglass, 5 Jan. 1846, in Douglass, Frederick, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave. Written by Himself, 2nd edn (Dublin: Webb and Chapman, 1846), cxxxiiGoogle Scholar.

3 The Presbyterian Church in Ireland's officially sanctioned narrative of 1859 has done the most to establish this myth as fact in the popular mind. See Carson, John T., God's River in Spate: The Story of the Religious Awakening of Ulster in 1859 (Belfast: Publications Board of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, 1958), 102Google Scholar.

4 Hill, Myrtle, “Ulster Awakened: The ‘59 Revival Reconsidered,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 41, 3 (July 1990), 444–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Holmes, Andrew R., The Shaping of Ulster Presbyterian Belief & Practice, 1770–1840 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 8, 311–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Akenson, Donald H., God's Peoples: Covenant and Land in South Africa, Israel, and Ulster (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), 147–48Google Scholar; McKee, John, “Revivals, Revivalism and Calvinism with Special Reference to Ireland,” in Patton, W. Donald, ed., Ebb and Flow: Essays in Church History in Honour of R. Finlay G. Holmes (Belfast: Presbyterian Historical Society of Ireland, 2002), 97–98Google Scholar.

5 See Daniel Ritchie, “Evangelicalism, Abolitionism, and Parnellism: The Public Career of the Revd Isaac Nelson,” PhD thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 2014.

6 Holmes, Andrew R., “The Ulster Revival of 1859: Causes, Controversies and Consequences,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 63, 3 (July 2012), 488–515, 490, 505CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Carwardine, Richard J., Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997), 134Google Scholar; Wolffe, John, The Expansion of Evangelicalism: The Age of Wilberforce, More, Chalmers and Finney (Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2006), 198–99Google Scholar; Marsden, George M., The Evangelical Mind and the New School Presbyterian Experience: A Case Study of Thought and Theology in Nineteenth-Century America (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2003; first published 1970), 93–95Google Scholar; Perry, Lewis, “Versions of Anarchism in the Antislavery Movement”, American Quarterly, 20, 4 (1968), 768–82, 781CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McPherson, James M., Battle Cry of Freedom: The American Civil War (1988; London: Penguin, 1990), 8Google Scholar.

8 Noll, Mark A., A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1993), 314–15Google Scholar.

9 Perry, Lewis, Radical Abolitionism: Anarchy and the Government of God in Antislavery Thought (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973), 169–70Google Scholar.

10 Dillon, Merton L., The Abolitionists: The Growth of a Dissenting Minority (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979), 57Google Scholar.

11 Carwardine, Richard, Transatlantic Revivalism: Popular Evangelicalism in Britain and America 1790–1865 (Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2006; first published 1978), 42–43Google Scholar; Hambrick-Stowe, Charles E., Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1996), 141–50Google Scholar; Faust, Drew G., “Christian Soldiers: The Meaning of Revivalism in the Confederate Army,” Journal of Southern History, 53, 1 (Feb. 1987), 63–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Noll, Mark A., The Old Religion in a New World: The History of North American Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002), 103Google Scholar.

12 Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 42.

13 Cf. Bratt, James D., “Religious Anti-revivalism in Antebellum America,” Journal of the Early Republic, 24, 1 (2004), 65–106, 71Google Scholar.

14 Hutchinson, Mark and Wolffe, John, A Short History of Global Evangelicalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bebbington, David W., Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Routledge, 2002; first published 1989), 1–19Google Scholar.

15 Long, Kathryn T., The Revival of 1857–58: Interpreting an American Religious Awakening (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 110CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Bebbington, David W., The Dominance of Evangelicalism: The Age of Spurgeon and Moody (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005), 73–76Google Scholar.

17 Daniel Ritchie, “Antislavery Orthodoxy: Isaac Nelson and the Free Church of Scotland, c.1843–65,” Scottish Historical Review, forthcoming.

18 Daniel Ritchie, “Abolitionism and Evangelicalism: Isaac Nelson, the Evangelical Alliance, and the Transatlantic Debate over Christian Fellowship with Slaveholders,” Historical Journal, forthcoming.

19 Nelson, Isaac, Slavery Supported by the American Churches, and Countenanced by Recent Proceedings in the Free Church of Scotland: A Lecture Delivered at the Request of the Free Church Anti-Slavery Society (Edinburgh: Charles Ziegler, 1847), 7Google Scholar.

20 Banner of Ulster, 5 Jan. 1861.

21 Nelson, Isaac, The Year of Delusion: A Review of “The Year of Grace” (Belfast: The Advertiser Office, 1860–66), 78Google Scholar.

22 Noll, Mark A., The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield and the Wesleys (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2004), 69–72Google Scholar.

23 Ibid., 100–1, 163–64, 234; Coffey, John, “Evangelicals, Slavery and the Slave Trade: From Whitefield to Wilberforce,” Anvil, 24, 2 (2007), 97–100Google Scholar; Marsden, George M., Jonathan Edwards: A Life (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 255–8Google Scholar; Minkema, Kenneth P. and Stout, Harry S., “The Edwardsean Tradition and the Antislavery Debate,” Journal of American History, 92, 1 (2005), 49–50Google Scholar; Stout, Harry S., The Divine Dramatist: George Whitefield and the Rise of Modern Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1991), 100–1Google Scholar; Stein, Stephen J., “George Whitefield on Slavery: Some New Evidence,” Church History, 42, 2 (June 1972), 243–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gallay, Allan, “The Origin of the Slaveholders’ Paternalism: George Whitefield, the Bryan Family, and the Great Awakening in the South,” Journal of Southern History, 53, 3 (Aug. 1987), 379–80Google Scholar.

24 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 78.

25 Ibid., 77; cf. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 43; Hill, Samuel S., “A Typology of American Restitutionism: From Frontier Revivalism and Mormonism to the Jesus Movement,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 44, 1 (March 1976), 65–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 81.

27 Ibid.; cf. “Caboon Mission – West Africa,” Missionary Herald (America), 56, 4 (April 1860), 112.

28 Van Dyke, Henry J., The Character and Influence of Abolitionism! A Sermon Preached in the First Presbyterian Church of Brooklyn, on Sunday Evening, December 9th, 1860, 2nd edn (Baltimore, MD: Henry Taylor, 1860), 6Google Scholar.

29 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 93.

30 Noll, Mark A., America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 384CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 See Lucas, Sean M., Robert Lewis Dabney: A Southern Presbyterian Life (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, 2005), 20–21, 81, 166–67Google Scholar.

32 Holmes, Andrew R., “Presbyterians and Science in the North of Ireland before 1874,” British Journal for the History of Science, 41, 4 (Dec. 2008), 541–65, 547CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

33 Nelson, Slavery Supported, 3.

34 Noll, Mark A., “Common Sense Traditions and American Evangelical Thought,” American Quarterly, 37, 2 (1985), 216–38, 221CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 86.

36 See Hart, Darryl G., John Williamson Nevin: High-Church Calvinist (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 2005), 31, 33–34Google Scholar; Hoffecker, W. Andrew, Charles Hodge: The Pride of Princeton (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 2011), 131Google Scholar; Aubert, Annette G., The German Roots of Nineteenth-Century American Theology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 126, 141, 148, 222CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Noll, America's God, 249–50, 263; Noll, “Common Sense”, 235–36.

37 Brown, Stewart J., “Presbyterian Communities, Transatlantic Visions and the Ulster Revival of 1859,” in Mackey, J. P., ed., The Cultures of Europe: The Irish Contribution (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, 1994), 87–108, 89–90Google Scholar; Bebbington, Dominance of Evangelicalism, 100.

38 Carwardine, Richard, “The Religious Revival of 1857–8 in the United States,” in Baker, Derek, ed., Studies in Church History 15 (Oxford: Ecclesiastical History Society, 1978), 393–406, 396–97Google Scholar; cf. “Religious Awakening in America,” Missionary Herald of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (hereafter Missionary Herald), April 1858, 58; “A Revival of Religion, and the Means of Obtaining It,” United Presbyterian Magazine, 3 (March 1859), 102.

39 Ollerenshaw, Philip, “Industry, 1820–1914,” in Kennedy, Liam and Ollerenshaw, Philip, eds., An Economic History of Ulster, 1820–1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), 62–108, 76Google Scholar.

40 Long, The Revival of 1857–58, 50–52; “Hindrances to a Revival of Religion,” Presbyterian Young Men's Magazine, 7 (Aug. 1858), 144–46; Abernethy, J. M., “Religious Awakening in Ahoghill,” Presbyterian Magazine, May 1859, 97–98Google Scholar.

41 Nelson, Isaac, Person and Work of the Holy Spirit: A Discourse Delivered to the Presbyterian Congregation, Donegal Street, on Sundays, 23d and 30th October, 1859 (Belfast: George Phillips & Sons, 1859), 24Google Scholar.

42 Ballymena Observer, 1 Jan. 1859.

43 Although Cheever had refused to completely condemn 1857–58; see Long, 93–95, 111–14; cf. “The Rev. Dr Cheever on the Revival,” Anti-Slavery Reporter, 6, 7 (July 1858), 147–49.

44 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 175–78.

45 Nelson, Isaac, The American War in Relation to Slavery: A Lecture Delivered to the Presbyterian Young Men's Society, Donegall Street. Belfast, 24th November, 1863 (Belfast: Alex. Mayne, 1863), 16Google Scholar.

46 Long, 94, 103–5, 110, 117; Northern Whig, 12 April 1858; Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 164–66; Smith, Timothy L., Revivalism & Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980; first published 1957), 64Google Scholar.

47 New York Daily Tribune, 27 March 1858; Long, 106.

48 Carwardine, “Religious Revival,” 401–2.

49 The Liberator, 30 April 1858.

50 Magill, William, “The American Revival,” Monthly Messenger, 2, 6 (June 1858), 83–86Google Scholar.

51 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 82.

52 See Brown, “Presbyterian Communities,” 87.

53 Minutes of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (Belfast: McCormick & Dunlop, 1858), 678.

54 Gibson, William, The Year of Grace: A History of the Ulster Revival of 1859 (Belfast: C. Aitchison, 1860), 16Google Scholar; cf. Belfast News-Letter, 23 Dec. 1858, 11 Feb. 1859; Ballymena Observer, 1 Jan. 1859; Coleraine Chronicle, 11 Dec. 1858; Newry Commercial Telegraph, 18 June, 13 Dec. 1859; McClure, William, “Colonial Mission: The Assembly's Deputation to Canada,” Missionary Herald, Oct. 1858, 196Google Scholar; McClure, William, “Report of the Deputation to British North America,” Missionary Herald, March 1859, 266–69Google Scholar; K. J. James, “Aspects of Protestant Culture and Society in Mid-Antrim, 1857–67,” PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 2000, 190.

55 Coleraine Chronicle, 1 Jan. 1859.

56 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 77–78.

57 Ballymena Observer, 26 March 1859.

58 Coleraine Chronicle, 5 June, 20 Nov. 1858; Morgan, James, “Fisherwick Place Church, Belfast,” in Reid, William, ed., Authentic Records of Revival, Now in Progress in the United Kingdom (London: James Nisbet, 1860), 10Google Scholar; Thomas Toye, “Great George's Street Church, Belfast,” in Reid, Authentic Records, 113.

59 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 77.

60 Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 159.

61 McIlwaine, William, “The Religious Aspect of Ulster Revivalism,” Journal of Mental Science, 7, 35 (Oct. 1860), 67Google Scholar; cf. Ritchie, Daniel, “William McIlwaine and the 1859 Revival in Ulster: A Study of Anglican and Evangelical Identities,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History, forthcoming 2014CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Brown, “Presbyterian Communities,” 92, 102–3.

63 Cf. Public Ledger, 20 Oct. 1858.

64 Long, The Revival of 1857–58, 7, 104; Carwardine, Richard, “Evangelicals, Politics, and the Coming of the American Civil War: A Transatlantic Perspective,” in Noll, Mark A., Bebbington, David W., and Rawlyk, George A., eds., Evangelicalism: Comparative Studies of Popular Protestantism in North America, the British Isles, and Beyond, 1700–1990 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 198–218, 210Google Scholar; Howe, Daniel W., What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 174Google Scholar; cf. May, Samuel J., Some Recollections of the Anti-slavery Conflict (Boston, MA: Fields, Osgood, & Co., 1867), 127–8Google Scholar; Bebbington, Dominance of Evangelicalism, 70.

65 Carwardine, “Religious Revivals,” 400–4; Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 165–67.

66 Prime, Samuel I., The Power of Prayer, Illustrated in the Wonderful Displays of Divine Grace at the Fulton Street and Other Meetings in New York and Elsewhere, in 1857 and 1858 (New York: Charles Scribner, 1859), 47Google Scholar.

67 Nelson, , Year of Delusion, 82; Pentecost or, The Work of God in Philadelphia, A. D. 1858. Prepared by the Young Men's Christian Association. With an Introductory Statement by the Rev. William Gibson, Professor of Christian Ethics, Belfast (Belfast: C. Aitchison, 1859)Google Scholar, xiii; cf. Banner of Ulster, 19 Jan., 25 June, 6 July 1861; Guthrie, Thomas, Christ and the Inheritance of the Saints: Illustrated in a series of Discourses from the Colossians (New York: Robert Carter & Brothers, 1859), 110–15Google Scholar.

68 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 82.

69 Long, 112–13.

70 American Slavery. Demonstrations in Favour of Dr. Cheever, in Scotland. Letter of Sympathy from Distinguished Clergy and other Gentlemen. Speeches at Meetings in Edinburgh and Glasgow, by Drs Candlish, Guthrie, Alexander, Buchanan, and Smyth. Also a Statement of Dr. Cheever's case, by Rev. H. Batchelor. Letter of Dr. Guthrie to the Presbyterian (New York: John A. Gray, 1860), iii–vii.

71 Whyte, Iain, “Send Back the Money!” The Free Church of Scotland and American Slavery (Cambridge: James Clarke, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 108 ff., 122–24, 139.

72 Nelson, Person and Work of the Holy Spirit, 24.

73 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 83–87; cf. Carwardine, “Religious Revival,” 394, 403–4.

74 Shanks, George H., Freedom and Slavery: An Explanation of the Principles & Issues Involved in the American Conflict; and the Duty of the People of Britain in Relation to that Momentous Struggle (Belfast: William McComb, [1863]), 44–52Google Scholar.

75 There is some evidence that they received money from the Americans; see John Edgar's remarks in Belfast News-Letter, 23 Dec. 1858. Some Americans subsequently sent donations to Ireland for the mission to Roman Catholics; see “Revival in New York,” Missionary Herald, April 1859, 290–91.

76 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 87.

77 Carwardine, “Religious Revival,” 404–5; Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 168.

78 See Ballymena Observer, 1 Jan. 1859, 16, 23, 30 June 1860; Banner of Ulster, 21 June, 14 Aug. 1860, 21 Feb. 1861; Belfast News-Letter, 1, 25, 30 June, 3 July 1860. Murray was personally anti-slavery, but he discouraged ministers from being preoccupied with preaching against it. See Murray, Nicholas, Preachers and Preaching (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1860), 52–57Google Scholar.

79 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 87.

80 Guthrie attended the Belfast Presbytery in October 1857 when Nelson was moderator. Minutes of Belfast Presbytery, 6 Oct. 1857, Strong Room, Church House, Belfast.

81 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 87; Newry Commercial Telegraph, 5 Jan. 1860; Demonstrations in favour of Dr. Cheever, 26–29.

82 Demonstrations in favour of Dr. Cheever, 70–77.

83 New York Daily Tribune, 24 March 1859.

84 Daniel Ritchie, “Principle, Pragmatism, and Presbyterian Antislavery: Isaac Nelson's Radical Abolitionist Examination of the American Civil War,” forthcoming.

85 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 81; cf. Belfast News-Letter, 11 March 1861, 9 May 1865.

86 Gibson, William, The Year of Grace: A History of the Revival in Ireland, A. D. 1859. With an Introduction by Rev. Baron Stow, D. D. (Boston, MA: Gould and Lincoln, 1860), viGoogle Scholar; Smith, Revivalism & Social Reform, 85.

87 Long, The Revival of 1857–58, 111.

88 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 80–81.

89 Ibid., 73, 75.

90 Banner of Ulster, 16 Feb. 1860.

91 Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 171; Brown, “Presbyterian Communities,” 90; Kent, John, Holding the Fort: Studies in Victorian Revivalism (London: Epworth Press, 1978), 72–73Google Scholar; “Revival of Religion in the Church,” Covenanter, 2, 4 (April 1858), 88; “Religious Revival in America,” Missionary Herald, July 1858, 111–12.

92 Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 162.

93 Long, 83.

94 Banner of Ulster, 4 Feb. 1860; cf. Wood, Gordon S., Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 596–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wolffe, Expansion of Evangelicalism, 54–57.

95 Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 172–73; cf. Bebbington, David, Victorian Religious Revivals: Culture and Piety in Local and Global Contexts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 5, 11.

96 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 77.

97 “Report on the State of Religion,” Missionary Herald, Sept. 1858, 169–70, original emphasis.

98 Holmes, Janice, Religious Revivals in Britain and Ireland 1859–1905 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000), xvii–xxGoogle Scholar; Hempton, David and Hill, Myrtle, Evangelical Protestantism in Ulster Society 1740–1890 (London: Routledge, 1992), 151Google Scholar.

99 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 77–78.

100 W. John H. McKee, “A Critical Examination of the Doctrine of Assurance in Revivalism, with Particular Reference to the Revival in Ulster in 1859,” PhD thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 1988, 6–7; Nelson, Isaac, An Answer to the Rev. John Macnaughtan's Defence of Revivalism, Assurance, and the Witness of the Spirit (Belfast: Alex. Mayne, 1867)Google Scholar; Nelson, Person and Work of the Holy Spirit, 23.

101 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 79–80.

102 Nelson, Person and Work of the Holy Spirit, 24.

103 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 92.

104 Ibid., 88.

105 Nelson, Person and Work of the Holy Spirit, 24.

106 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 87.

107 Ibid., 92.

108 Holmes, Andrew R., “The Uses and Interpretation of Prophecy in Irish Presbyterians, 1850–1930,” in Gribben, Crawford and Holmes, Andrew R., eds., Protestant Millennialism, Evangelicalism and Irish Society, 1790–2005 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2006), 144–73, 155CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 93.

110 Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 66; cf. Nelson, American War, 43–44.

111 Nelson, American War, 16; Ritchie, Daniel, “Radical Orthodoxy: Irish Covenanters and American Slavery, circa 1830–1865,” Church History, 80, 4 (Dec. 2013), 812–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

112 Foreman, Amanda, A World on Fire: An Epic History of Two Nations Divided (London: Penguin, 2011), 28–30Google Scholar.

113 Nelson, Year of Delusion, 77, 240.

114 Orr, J. Edwin, The Second Evangelical Awakening in Britain (London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1949), 174Google Scholar.

115 Maclear, John F., “The Evangelical Alliance and the Antislavery Crusade,” Huntingdon Library Quarterly, 42, 2 (1979), 141–64, 156CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

116 Carwardine, Richard, “The Second Great Awakening in the Urban Centers: An Examination of Methodism and the ‘New Measures’,” Journal of American History, 59, 2 (Sept. 1972), 327–40, 329CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Banner of Ulster, 28 Jan. 1851; Nelson, American War, 30; The Liberator, 14 March 1851; “Congregational Union of England and Wales”, Anti-Slavery Reporter, 6, 66 (June 1851), 102.

117 “Religious Revival in America,” Missionary Herald, July 1858, 111–12; Long, The Revival of 1857–58, 12–13; Alexander, James W., The Revival and Its Lessons: A Collection of Fugitive Papers, Having Reference to the Great Awakening (New York: Anson D. F. Randolph, 1859)Google Scholar.

118 Cf. Hambrick-Stowe, Charles G. Finney, 173–74.

119 Hempton and Hill, Evangelical Protestantism, 150; Long, Kathryn T., “The Power of Interpretation: The Revival of 1857–58 and the Historiography of Revivalism in America,” Religion and American Culture 4, 1 (1994), 94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bebbington, Dominance of Evangelicalism, 101; Johnston, John and Kirkpatrick, W. B., “Pastoral Letter to the Ministers, Elders, and Members of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland,” Missionary Herald, Nov. 1858, 208–10Google Scholar; “The Progress of Revival,” Missionary Herald, June 1859, 313–14; “Eighteen Hundred and Fifty-Nine,” Missionary Herald, Jan. 1860, 465–66.

120 Hill, “Ulster Awakened,” 447–48.

121 Cf. Carwardine, “Religious Revival,” 400–4; Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism, 53.

122 Nelson, American War, 38–39; Nelson, Year of Delusion, 232.