Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T06:03:05.043Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

American Recreation: Sportsmanship and the New Nationalism, 1900–1910

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 February 2019

MALCOLM MCLAUGHLIN
MALCOLM MCLAUGHLIN*
Affiliation:
Department of American Studies, University of East Anglia. Email: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article is about the relationship between the culture of outdoors recreation and the development of progressive politics at the turn of the twentieth century in the United States. It considers the significance of popular outdoors magazines for American culture and politics before focussing in particular on the way in which Caspar Whitney, as editor of Outing magazine, constructed a notion of sportsmanship modelled upon the idealized figure of Theodore Roosevelt – an exemplar, by his reckoning, of the patrician class, and the template for his vision of a progressive citizenship. It was through the notion of sportsmanship that Whitney defined a set of values that would become synonymous with the strain of progressivism known as the New Nationalism, out of which the tradition of reform liberalism emerged in the twentieth century.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of American Studies , Volume 54 , Issue 5 , December 2020 , pp. 839 - 869
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and British Association for American Studies 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 For the economic context see, for example, Kolko, Gabriel, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916 (New York: Free Press, 1963)Google Scholar; Weibe, Robert H., The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), 1–43Google Scholar; Sklar, Martin J., The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890–1916 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Trachtenberg, Alan, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill and Wang, 1990; first published 1982)Google Scholar; Diner, Steven J., A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), 30–49Google Scholar. For US imperialism see Painter, Nell Irvin, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919 (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1987), 141–69Google Scholar.

2 For example, Painter, 110–40; Diner, 14–29.

3 Hays, Samuel P., The Response to Industrialism, 1885–1914 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), 48–93Google Scholar. Webster's dictionary tracks the usage of “combine” in this sense tellingly to 1886. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edn (Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc., 2003)Google Scholar.

4 See Bederman, Gail, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. 84–88, 130–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Relatedly, see Kasson, John F., Houdini, Tarzan, and the Perfect Man: The White Male Body and the Challenge of Modernity in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001)Google Scholar. See also, more broadly, Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign People at Home and Abroad (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000)Google Scholar. And again see Painter, 141–69.

5 See, for example, Jackson Lears, T. J., No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880–1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981), esp. 4–58Google Scholar; and Bederman.

6 Croly, Herbert, The Promise of American Life (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1963; first published 1909), esp. 4–6, 22, 173, 427–31Google Scholar.

7 This, Martin Sklar has suggested, was because the New Freedom was only rhetorically in any meaningful way distinct from the New Nationalism's policy agenda for managing the corporate economy. See Sklar, Martin J., “Woodrow Wilson and the Developmental Imperatives of Modern U.S. Liberalism,” republished in Sklar, The United States as a Developing Country: Studies in U.S. History in the Progressive Era and the 1920s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 102–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar (originally published in Studies on the Left in 1960); Link, Arthur S., Wilson: The New Freedom (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967; first published 1956), 444Google Scholar; Link, , Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), 66–80Google Scholar.

8 See the chapter on the significance of Roosevelt's presidency in Croly.

9 Hofstadter, Richard, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955), 249–51Google Scholar; Hartz, Louis, The Liberal Tradition in America: An Interpretation of American Political Thought since the Revolution (Orlando, FL: Harvest, 1991; first published 1955)Google Scholar; Hays; Sklar, “Woodrow Wilson”; Kolko; Weibe, 220–21; Weinstein, James, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900–1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968)Google Scholar; Sklar, Corporate Reconstruction.

10 Specifically Hays, 83.

11 See, for example, Thelen, David P., The New Citizenship: Origins of Progressivism in Wisconsin, 1885–1900 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1972)Google Scholar; Buenker, John D., Urban Liberalism and Progressive Reform (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973)Google Scholar; Painter; Dawley, Alan, Struggles for Justice: Social Responsibility and the Liberal State (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1991)Google Scholar; Diner.

12 For three works dealing with popular magazines in this period see Cohn, Jan, Creating America: George Horace Lorimer and the Saturday Evening Post (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Schneirov, Matthew, The Dream of a New Social Order: Popular Magazines in America, 1893–1914 (New York: Coumbia University Press, 1994)Google Scholar, which deals mainly with McClure's, Cosmopolitan, and Munsey's, and makes brief mention of nature, health, and the outdoors in Cosmopolitan, 139–46; Ohmann, Richard M., Selling Culture: Magazines, Markets and Class at the Turn of the Century (London and New York: Verso, 1996)Google Scholar. For advertising and consumer culture see Ewen, Stuart, The Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976)Google Scholar; Pope, Daniel, The Making of Modern Advertising (New York: Basic Books, 1983)Google Scholar; Marchand, Roland, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Strasser, Susan, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (Washington, DC and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Lears, Jackson, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994)Google Scholar.

13 Lears, No Place; Lears, T. J. Jackson, Rebirth of a Nation: The Making of Modern America, 1877–1920 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009)Google Scholar.

14 Reiger, John F., American Sportsmen and the Origins of Conservation (New York: Winchester Press, 1975)Google Scholar. For criticism of Reiger's thesis see Dunlap, Thomas R., “Sport Hunting and Conservation, 1880–1920,” Environmental Review, 12, 1 (Spring 1988), 51–60Google Scholar. For Reiger's response see Reiger, John F., “Commentary on Thomas R. Dunlap's Article, ‘Sport Hunting and Conservation, 1880–1920’,” Environmental Review, 12, 3 (Autumn 1988), 94–96Google Scholar. Altherr, Thomas L., “The American Hunter-Naturalist and the Development of the Code of Sportsmanship,” Journal of Sport History, 5, 1 (Spring 1978), 7–22Google Scholar. Herman, Daniel Justin, “The Hunter's Aim: The Cultural Politics of American Sport Hunters, 1880–1910,” Journal of Leisure Research, 35, 4 (2003), 455–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Herman, Daniel Justin, “Hunting Democracy,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History, 55, 3 (Autumn 2005), 22–33Google Scholar.

16 Bederman, Manliness,170–215. See also, for example, Richard Slotkin's contrasting descriptions of Turner, Frederick Jackson and Roosevelt, Theodore in Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992)Google Scholar. In addition see Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues, 105–21, which covers related ground. The following operate with a similar framework: Testi, Arnaldo, “The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the Culture of Masculinity,” Journal of American History, 81, 4 (March 1995), 1509–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; (to some extent) Hoganson, Kristin L., Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish–American and Philippine–American Wars (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Bayers, Peter L., “Frederick Cook, Mountaineering in the Alaskan Wilderness, and the Regeneration of Progressive Era Masculinity,” Western American Literature, 38, 2 (Summer 2003), 170–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Watts, Sarah, Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Tara Kathleen Kelly, “The Hunter Elite: Americans, Wilderness, and the Rise of the Big-Game Hunt,” PhD dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 2006; Bold, Christine, The Frontier Club: Popular Westerns and Cultural Power, 1880–1924 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Compare with Gerstle, Gary, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2017; first published 2001), 15–16, 44–47Google Scholar.

18 Gerstle, 25–26, also sees Roosevelt's interest in hunting and ranching as part of his obsession with strenuous masculinity.

19 For example, Dyerson, Mark, Making the American Team: Sport, Culture, and the Olympic Experience (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Pope, S. W., Patriotic Games: Sporting Traditions in the American Imagination, 1876–1926 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Young, David C., The Modern Olympics: A Struggle for Revival (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

20 By implication, then, sportsmanship offers an alternative outlook on turn-of-the-century American culture to that found in the work of Jackson Lears. See, for example, Lears, No Place of Grace, 160. For Croly see Croly, Herbert, The Promise of American Life (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1963; first published 1909), esp. 4–6, 22, 173, 427–31Google Scholar.

21 See Rorty, Richard, Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), esp. 46–50, 82–92Google Scholar. For two studies of this political tradition, both mentioned by Rorty, see Eisenach, Eldon J., The Lost Promise of Progressivism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994)Google Scholar; and Lind, Micahel, The Next American Nation: The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution (New York and London: Free Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

22 A very select list of books by Grinnell includes, for example, Grinnell, George Bird, Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-Tales, with Notes on the Origin, Custom and Character of the Pawnee People (New York: Forest and Stream Publishing, 1889)Google Scholar; Grinnell, , Blackfoot Lodge Tales: The Story of a Prairie People (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892)Google Scholar; Roosevelt, Theodore and Grinnell, George Bird, eds., American Big-Game Hunting: The Book of the Boone and Crockett Club (New York: Forest and Stream Publishing, 1893)Google Scholar; Roosevelt, and Grinnell, , eds., Hunting in Many Lands: The Book of the Boone and Crockett Club (New York: Forest and Stream Publishing, 1895)Google Scholar. For Shields: Shields, George O. (“Coquina”), Rustlings in the Rockies: Hunting and Fishing by Mountain and Stream (Chicago: Bedford, Clarke and Co, 1883)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Shields (“Coquina”), Cruisings in the Cascades: A Narrative of Travel, Exploration, Amateur Photography, Hunting, and Fishing (Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally and Co., 1889)Google Scholar; Shields (“Coquina”), The Battle of the Big Hole: A History of General Gibbon's Engagement with Nez Percés Indians in the Big Hold Valley, Montana, August 9th 1877 (Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally and Co., 1889)Google Scholar; Shields (“Coquina”), ed., The Big Game of North America: Its Habits, Habitat, Haunts, and Characteristics; How, When, and Where to Hunt it (Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally and Co., 1890)Google Scholar.

23 In this phase, outdoors recreation shared something of the spirit of literary Transcendentalism: its emphasis upon the importance of self-reliance and individualism, worked out within a larger cultural reimagining of the natural world, echoed the writings of Emerson and Thoreau. See Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Nature” (1836), in Emerson, Nature (London: Penguin, 2008), 1–55; and Emerson, “Self-Reliance” (1841), in ibid., 85–118. Thoreau, Henry David, Walden and Other Writings (New York: Bantam Dell, 2004; first published 1854)Google Scholar.

24 Parkman, Francis Jr., The Oregon Trail (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008; first published 1849)Google Scholar.

25 Headley, J. T., The Adirondack; or, Life in the Woods (New York: Charles Scribner, 1864; first published 1849), 418–19Google Scholar.

26 Headley, Preface to the 1864 edition, n.p.

27 Warder H. Cadbury's introduction to Murray, William H. H., Adventures in the Wilderness, ed. Verner, William K., with introduction and notes by Cadbury, Warder H. (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum, 1970; first published 1869), 40–49Google Scholar.

28 This notion of distinction is, of course, loosely derived from Bourdieu, Pierre, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans Nice, Richard (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984Google Scholar; first published as La distinction: Critique sociale du jugement, 1979).

29 Murray, 26–28.

30 Ibid., 28–32.

31 Ibid., 33–35.

32 Hallock, Charles, “The Raquette Club,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine, 41, 243 (Aug. 1870), 321–38Google Scholar.

33 Nessmuk (Sears, George W.), Woodcraft (New York: Forest and Stream, 1900; first published 1884), vii, 3Google Scholar.

34 For Nessmuk's shopping list see Sears, 8–17; 29. Later we are reminded that some additional equipment might be needed: a compass, a rifle and ammunition; and for the tenderfoot unable to make an “Indian camp” out of tree boughs and a birch canoe to Nessmuk's specification, tent-making materials and a canoe would also be needed. Hotel bills are not part of his estimated outlay, but he does assume that travellers will spend at least one night in a hotel before striking out into the woods. See Sears, 19, 21–22, 29, 45, 84–85, 92–94, 99–103, 103–4, 111, 129–39. For comparison see George O. Shields (“Coquina”), Camping and Camp Outfits: A Manual of Instruction for Young and Old Sportsmen (Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally and Co., 1890)Google Scholar; Kephart, Horace, The Book of Camping and Woodcraft: A Guidebook for Those Who Travel in the Wilderness (New York: Outing Publishing Co., 1906)Google Scholar, which offer advice on outfit in similar terms.

35 See Mott, Frank L., A History of American Magazines, 1865–1885 (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press, 1966; first published 1938), 210–11, 572Google Scholar. Mott identifies, in addition to those listed here, a number of short-lived publications including Fur, Fin, and Feather (New York, 1868; ceased in 1891)Google Scholar; American Sportsman (Connecticut, 1871, later Rod and Gun and absorbed by Forest and Stream in 1877); Field and River (Pennsylvania, 1872, ceased in 1882); Game Fancier's Journal (Michigan, 1879, ceased in 1910); American Angler (New York 1881, ceased in 1900); and, dealing with the related pursuit of canoeing, American Canoeist (New York, 1882; ceased publication 1891)Google Scholar. Chicago Field (Illinois, 1874, later New York as American Field) survives. Mott also noted here The Spirit of the Times.

36 Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 33rd edn (New York: Printer's Ink, 1901), 103–4, 781, 815, 1459, 1460Google Scholar. For Outer's Book specifically see Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 41st edn (New York: Printer's Ink, 1909), 1217Google Scholar. For Outing and Outing and the Wheelman, see Editorial, Outing and the Wheelman, 3 (Jan. 1884), 301. Mott, 210, noted that Outing “was founded by W. B. Howland at Albany in 1882.” For Mott's full sketch of Outing see Mott, , A History of American Magazines, 1885–1905 (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press, 1957), 633–38Google Scholar. For Outing and The Wheelman separately see also Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 15th edn (New York: George P. Rowell and Co., 1883), 259Google Scholar; and Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 16th edn (New York: George P. Rowell and Co., 1884), 195Google Scholar. For “a sportsman's magazine of the West” see, for example, Outdoor Life, 31, 5 (May 1913).

37 Peterson, Theodore, Magazines in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964), 10, 148–50Google Scholar.

38 For The Outlook (established in 1869) and National Geographic (1888) see Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 32nd edn (New York: Printer's Ink, 1900), 737 and 1199 respectively. The 25-cent Country Life in America (1901) had achieved a circulation of around 20,000 by 1905: Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 37th edn (New York: Printer's Ink, 1905), 723Google Scholar.

39 Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1885–1905, 634–35. Rowell's has Outing hitting a peak in 1896, of 88,148, and then falling back to something closer to the 20,000 mark. See Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 37th edn (New York: Printer's Ink, 1905), 736Google Scholar. For Forest and Stream and Recreation in the 1890s see Rowell's American Newspaper Directory, 33rd edn (New York: Printer's Ink, 1901), 781, 815Google Scholar.

40 For skill and dedication see, for example, Forest and Stream, 35, 1 (3 July 1890), 474; 44, 2 (19 Jan. 1895), 49; 44, 12 (23 March 1895), 233; Recreation, 10, 3 (March 1899), 229; 11, 6 (Dec. 1899), 475

41 For examples of the typical format see Forest and Stream, 50 (Jan.–June 1898), i–xii; Outing, 32 (Sept. 1898), xvi, xxxvii–lxv; Outing, 36 (Sept. 1900), 715–42; Recreation 8 (Jan. 1898), i–xvi, xvii–lx. Compare Ohmann, Selling Culture, 175–216.

42 Recreation, 13, 3 (Sept. 1900), 221.

43 For indicative examples: Forest and Stream, 34, 7 (6 March 1890), 134; 34, 10 (27 March 1890), 197; 44, 3 (19 Jan. 1895), 49. Shields reported on the annual meetings of the League. See, for example, Recreation 12, 4 (April 1900), 255–60, for such a report.

44 For sportsmanship as conduct see indicative examples: Forest and Stream, 34, 13 (17 April 1890), 249; 34, 21 (12 June 1890), 409; 44, 24 (23 June 1895), 516; 51, 11 (10 Sept. 1898), 1; 51, 13 (24 Sept. 1898), 1; 51, 14 (1 Oct. 1898), 1; 54, 6 (11 Aug. 1900), 107; Recreation, 4, 3 (Oct. 1895), 195; 7, 2 (Aug. 1897), 167; 7, 3 (Sept. 1897), 175; 10, 5 (May 1899), 374; 12, 4 (April 1900), 297. For unselfishness and conservation see, for example, Forest and Stream, 44, 3 (19 Jan. 1895), 47; 44, 16 (13 April 1895), 285; 44, 20 (11 May 1895), 1; 51, 23 (3 Dec. 1898), 1; 51, 25 (17 Dec. 1898), 1; Recreation, 8, 4 (April 1898), 296; 8, 6 (June 1898), 460; 9, 1 (July 1898), 53; 11, 2 (Aug. 1899), 140; 11, 3 (Sept. 1899), 195; 11, 6 (Dec. 1899), 452; 13, 2 (Aug. 1900), 129.

45 See, for example, Forest and Stream, 50, 1 (1 Jan. 1898), 2–5, 10.

46 See, for example, the contents page of Recreation (“A Magazine Devoted to Everything that the Name Implies”), 3, 1 (July 1895), i.

47 See Editorial, Outing and the Wheelman, 3 (Jan. 1884), 301. For breadth see the indexes for Outing, 12 (April–Sept. 1888); 13 (Oct. 1888–March 1889); 14 (April–Sept. 1889); 15 (Oct. 1889–March 1890); 16 (April–Sept. 1890); 17 (Oct. 1890–March 1891); 18 (April–Sept. 1891); 19 (Oct. 1891–March 1892); 20 (April–Sept. 1892); 21 (Oct. 1892–March 1893); 22 (April 1893–Sept. 1893); 23 (Oct. 1893–March 1894); 24 (April–Sept. 1894); 25 (Oct. 1894–March 1895); 26 (April–Sept. 1895); 27 (Oct. 1895–March 1896); 28 (April–Sept. 1896); 29 (Oct. 1896–March 1897); 30 (April–Sept. 1897); 31 (Oct. 1897–March 1898); 32 (April–Sept. 1898); 33 (Oct. 1898–March 1899); 34 (April–Sept. 1899). Briefly, in 1897, it declared itself to be “The World's magazine of Amateur Sport and Recreation’: see cover of Outing, 31 (Oct. 1897).

48 Jack London, White Fang, Outing, 48 (May–Sept. 1906), 129–41, 305–23, 448–70, 589–604, 708–16; 49 (Oct. 1906), 65–81. Clarence E. Mulford, The Fight at Buckskin, Outing, 47 (Nov. 1905), 259–67; Mulford, Bar-20 Range Yarns, Outing, 48 (April–Aug. 1906), 68–78, 200–5, 334–40, 419–28, 546–54; 49 (Dec. 1906), 329–40; 50 (May 1907), 169–83.

49 For example, Huffman, L. A., “Salvation Army Bill's Cayote,” Recreation, 5, 5 (Nov. 1896), 227–33Google Scholar (Montana); Professor F. V. Yaeger, “A Bear in Camp” (Pend d'Oreille, WA), Recreation, 2, 2 (Feb. 1895), 187–89; Greene, S. H., “Trouting in the Cascades,” Forest and Stream, 38, 5 (4 Feb. 1892), 103–4Google Scholar; Rock, R. W., “Propagating Big Game,” Recreation, 4, 1 (Jan. 1896), 3–5Google Scholar; and Carlin, W. E., “As to Recreation's Rocky Mountain Exploring Expedition,” Recreation, 6, 1 (Jan. 1897), 3–14Google Scholar (The Rockies); Richards, W. A., “My Best Shot,” Recreation, 4, 5 (May 1896), 213–18 (Yellowstone)Google Scholar; N.A., “The Fantail Deer Again,” Forest and Stream, 44, 23 (8 June 1895), 462–63Google Scholar (Black Hills); N.A. “After Antelope in the Bad Lands,” Forest and Stream, 42, 22 (2 June 1894), 467; still further afield, Brooke, Major John, “Trouting in Alaska,” Recreation, 2, 2 (Feb. 1895), 181–85Google Scholar.

50 For example, Dr Wilson, Erastus, “Cuban Quail Fields,” Forest and Stream, 53, 17 (21 Oct. 1899), 331Google Scholar; N.A., “A Glimpse of Porto Rico,” Forest and Stream, 53, 19 (18 Nov. 1899), 404Google Scholar; Recreation, 12, 1 (Jan. 1900), x (“The winter resorts are open now,” an advertisement for the Queen and Crescent Route in Recreation declared in Jan. 1900, and “Many travellers will this year add a short sea voyage from Miami or Tampa for a visit to Cuba or Puerto Rico”); McGregor, Richard C., “Game of the Hawaiian Islands,” Recreation, 14, 4 (April 1901), 285–86Google Scholar; J.D.S., Presido, CA, letter, Recreation, 14, 4 (April 1901), 289Google Scholar.

51 Whitney, Caspar, On Snow-Shoes to the Barren Grounds: Twenty-Eight Hundred Miles after Musk-Oxen and Wood-Bison (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1896)Google Scholar. The New York Times took an interest in this intrepid journey. See the report of his trip in (no author) “The Illustrated Journal: Harper's Weekly and its New Editor, Mr. Henry Loomis Nelson,” 23 Dec. 1894; (no author), “In the Barren Ground,” New York Times, 22 June 1895, 8. Whitney went on to become an important and public figure in the Olympic movement in the United States and internationally. See Dyerson, Making the American Team. In addition: (no author), “Fund for Athletes for Olympic Games,” New York Times, 11 Jan. 1906, 10; (no author) “American Athletes for Olympic Games,” New York Times, 9 June 1908, 10.

52 Caspar Whitney, “The Santiago Campaign,” Harper's Magazine, 97, 581 (Oct. 1898), 795–818.

53 Whitney, Caspar, Hawaiian America: Something of Its History, Resources, and Prospects (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1899)Google Scholar.

54 Wister and Whitney are listed as members of the Boone and Crockett Club in Roosevelt, Theodore and Grinnell, George Bird, American Big-Game Hunting: The Book of the Boone and Crockett Club (New York: Forest and Stream Publishing, 1893), 340, 343Google Scholar respectively. In addition, for Roosevelt, Wister, and Grinnell see Reiger, American Sportsmen, 120–21. Reiger did not mention Whitney, but see (no author) “Guests of the President,” New York Times, June 30 1908, 1. Whitney published with both Wister and Grinnell. See Caspar Whitney, Grinnell, George Bird, and Wister, Owen, Musk Ox, Bison, Sheep and Goat (New York: MacMillan, 1904)Google Scholar. See also Kelly, “The Hunter Elite.”

55 Bold, The Frontier Club, 33–35.

56 Roosevelt evidently believed that they had been at Harvard at the same time – before Whitney left in search of adventure out West. See Roosevelt, Theodore, Hunting the Grisly and Other Sketches (New York: Review of Reviews Co. 1904), 129Google Scholar. However, Kelly, 142, checked Harvard's records and Whitney had not enrolled. See also Bold, 33, where she cites Kelly's work.

57 For context see, for example, Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues, 221–59; for imperialism constructed as a virile, manly, civilizing mission see Bederman, Manliness, 187–90.

58 Whitney, “Santiago,” 818. Or, for example, consider that Colonel Roosevelt, hero of the Spanish–American War, described his volunteer regiment, the Rough Riders, as men of “the Southwestern ranch country,” and hence “skilled in the wild horsemanship of the Great Plains.” See Theodore Roosevelt, An Autobiography (New York: Da Capo Press, 1985; first published 1913), 223. For wider context see Bederman, 176–77.

59 See, for example, frontispiece, and Steffens, J. Lincoln, “Theodore Roosevelt, Governor,” McClure's, 13, 1 (May 1899), 57–64Google Scholar; Roosevelt, Theodore, “The Rough Riders,” Scribner's, 25, 1 (Jan. 1899), 3–20Google Scholar; Riis, Jacob A., “Feast-Days in Little Italy,” Century Magazine, 58, 3 (Aug. 1899), 491–99Google Scholar, documenting his travels with then Police Commissioner Roosevelt; Blythe, Samuel G., “Electing a Governor,” Cosmopolitan, 26, 3 (Jan. 1899), 288–94Google Scholar; (no author), “Men, Women, and Events,” Cosmopolitan, 27, 1 (May 1899), 105–6Google Scholar.

60 Banks, Charles Eugene and Armstrong, Leroy, Theodore Roosevelt: A Typical American (Chicago: S. Stone, 1901), 76Google Scholar.

61 Riis, Jacob, Theodore Roosevelt: The Man and the Citizen (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904; first published by Outlook, 1903), 256CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Riis toured the tenements of New York City with Roosevelt.

62 Banks and Armstrong, 90–108; Washburn, Charles G., Theodore Roosevelt: The Logic of His Career (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 9–10Google Scholar; Riis, Roosevelt, 54–56.

63 TR quoted in Banks and Armstrong, 95.

64 Riis, Roosevelt, 256, italics added.

65 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (April 1900), 92Google Scholar.

66 Caspar Whitney, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (June 1900), 313.

67 Roosevelt, Theodore, quoted in Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (Aug. 1902), 619Google Scholar.

68 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing 45 (Jan. 1905), 493Google Scholar.

69 Whitney, Caspar, “The View-Point,” Outing, 46 (Sept. 1905), 755Google Scholar.

70 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 47 (Nov. 1905), 229Google Scholar, original emphasis.

71 Croly, The Promise of American Life, 168–69.

72 Ibid., 173.

73 Ibid., 4, 6.

74 Ibid., 431.

75 Young, David C., The Olympic Myth of Greek Amateur Athletics (Chicago: Ares Publishers, 1985), 15–22Google Scholar; Young, , The Modern Olympics: A Struggle for Revival (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), esp. 191 n. 193Google Scholar; Pope, S. W., Patriotic Games: Sporting Traditions in the American Imagination, 1876–1926 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 30Google Scholar.

76 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 38 (May 1901), 217–18Google Scholar; 45 (Feb. 1905), 621–22. For concern about lack of enforcement in Wyoming see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Oct. 1901), 110Google Scholar. For anticipated federal legislation see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (Aug. 1902), 632–33Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 41 (Jan. 1903), 508Google Scholar.

77 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 37 (Nov. 1900), 477Google Scholar.

78 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 38 (June 1901), 342–43Google Scholar. For more on this theme see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (April 1902), 108Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 43 (Oct. 1903), 109–11Google Scholar.

79 Caspar Whitney, “The Month's Review,” 36 (July 1900), 676. He opposed measures that threatened to restrict access to game reserves of wild places for people of modest means, or to prevent native peoples from living off their land. Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (June 1900), 315Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (April 1902), 105Google Scholar, cautious about expensive licensing. National debates around the regulation of the wilderness would become more pressing by the 1920s and 1930s as growing automobile ownership and improved road access increased the press of tourists. See Sutter, Paul, Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), esp. 19–53Google Scholar.

80 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (May 1900), 200Google Scholar. For more on this theme, see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Oct. 1901), 110Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (April 1902), 104Google Scholar. For the legislative achievements of such advocacy see Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (July 1900), 675Google Scholar. For similar see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (June 1902), 377Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 41 (Jan. 1903), 508Google Scholar.

81 Athletics: Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (Sept. 1902), 765Google Scholar; 43 (Feb. 1903), 603–4. Baseball: Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (May 1900), 207–8Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” 40 (Aug. 1902), 629. Canoe: “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Oct. 1901), 103. Carriage driving: Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 37 (Jan. 1901), 478; 40 (Aug. 1902), 626Google Scholar. Cycling: Caspar Whitney, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 38, (April 1901), 102–3; 40 (Sept. 1902), 762–63. Golf: Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (June 1900), 325–26Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Jan. 1902), 612. Horse racing: Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Nov. 1901), 238Google Scholar; 41 (Nov. 1902), 249–50. Polo: Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (May 1900), 209; 39 (Nov. 1901), 250Google Scholar. Rifle: Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 37 (Nov. 1900), 221Google Scholar; 39 (Nov. 1901), 103–4; 40 (March 1903), 760–61. Rowing: Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 36 (Sept. 1900), 679Google Scholar; 40 (June and Aug. 1902), 376, 628. Tennis: Caspar Whitney, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 42 (April 1903), 122.

82 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (May 1900), 200Google Scholar. For a similar view see, for example, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (Sept. 1902), 763 (bicycling and the League of American Wheelmen).

83 See, for example: Caspar Whitney, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 38 (May, June, July, Aug., Sept.), 225–26, 335–36, 461–62, 579–82, 728–29; 39 (Oct., Nov., Dec.), 101–3, 229–33, 369.

84 This is well documented in Dyerson, Making the American Team.

85 Whitney, Caspar, “The View-Point,” Outing, 46 (July 1905), 487Google Scholar. He makes the same point in “The View-Point,” Outing, 52 (May 1908), 255–56.

86 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 37 (Oct. 1900), 215Google Scholar.

87 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 37 (Oct. 1900), 222, 227Google Scholar.

88 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 37 (Nov. 1900), 351, 353Google Scholar.

89 See, for example, Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 38 (May and July 1901), 220–221 and 587Google Scholar.

90 Needham, Henry Beach, “The College Athlete, I,” McClure's, 25 (June 1905), 115–28Google Scholar; Needham, , “The College Athlete, II,” McClure's, 25 (July 1905), 260–73Google Scholar. John Sayle Watterson notes that TR was already concerned about the state of college football, and the perception that coaches were adopting tactics that relied overly on physical strength to overcome opponents. Needham's article gave him an opportunity to make a public intervention in a speech about sportsmanship at Harvard in the summer of 1905. See Watterson, John Sayle, College Football: History, Spectacle, Controversy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 64–70Google Scholar.

91 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 46 (July 1905), 485–87Google Scholar.

92 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (April 1900), 95, 97Google Scholar. See also Whitney, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (May 1900), 204.

93 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (April 1900), 95, 96, 97Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 38, (Aug. 1901), 716.

94 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 37 (Dec. 1900), 595–96Google Scholar. For more on this theme see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 38, (Aug. 1901), 717–18 (college baseball); “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Nov. 1901), 234 (college athletics); “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Dec. 1901), 363 (college football); “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (July 1902), 497. Moreover, Whitney considered professional coaching no less effective: “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 42 (Aug. 1903), 630 (college rowing); “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 43 (Nov. 1903), 223–26 (college baseball); “The View-Point,” Outing, 50 (Aug. 1907), 623 (college baseball).

95 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (May 1900), 205–7Google Scholar. For more on “muckerish” behaviour see Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (June 1900), 319Google Scholar. He saw muckerishness behind the fashion for “brute force” and “brutal play” in college football, which he predicted would ruin its popularity: “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 41 (Jan. 1903), 499–500. Similarly, see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 45 (Dec. 1904), 362; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 45 (Jan. 1905), 498.

96 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 44 (Aug. 1904), 628Google Scholar. He makes a similar point in “The View-Point,” Outing, 52 (Sept. 1908), 766. He took this view of the American Olympic effort – and stated in a speech in London after the 1908 games, that he was quite “disgusted by the manner in which international sport has been conducted recently,” and singled the American team out as a particular “disgrace.” The problem as he saw it: “a desire to win at all odds.” (No author), “Whitney Scores American Athletes,” New York Times, 17 July 1909, 3.

97 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review’, Outing, 36 (May 1900), 200Google Scholar.

98 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 37 (Sept. 1900), 91Google Scholar, (Nov. 1900), 473.

99 Whitney, Caspar, “The View-Point,” Outing, 47, (March 1906) 788Google Scholar.

100 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 38 (April 1901), 97–98Google Scholar. Cleveland was somewhat rehabilitated in a 1903 article in Outing: C. W. Sanders, “Grover Cleveland Goes Afishing,” 42 (Sept. 1903), 686–90. Note that Cleveland later felt moved to repudiate this allegation: see Cleveland, Grover, Fishing and Shooting Sketches (Deposit, NY: Outing Press, 1906), 179–84Google Scholar. Renowned nature writer Ernest Thompson Seton was also accused, in 1902, but Whitney could not bring himself to believe it. Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 40 (April 1902), 112Google Scholar.

101 Whitney, Caspar, “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Oct. 1901), 113Google Scholar; “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 39 (Dec. 1901), 363.

102 Whitney, Caspar, “The View-Point,” Outing, 46 (July 1905), 485–87Google Scholar; Caspar Whitney, “The View-Point,” Outing, 46 (Sept. 1905), 754–59.

103 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (May 1900), 199Google Scholar.

104 Whitney, Caspar, “The Month's Review,” Outing, 36 (June 1900), 314Google Scholar. For similar, see “The Sportsman's View-Point,” Outing, 45 (Nov. 1904), 236.

105 Roosevelt, Theodore, “National Duties,” in Roosevelt, The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses (London and New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1919), 315–37, 337Google Scholar.

106 For quote see (for example) Goodwin, Doris Kearns, The Bully Pulpit: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Golden Age of Journalism (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2013), 292Google Scholar.