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³ The best books in this genre have been eye-opening. They include Cawelti, John G., Apostles of the Self-Made Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965)Google Scholar, Bercovitch, Sacvan, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975)Google Scholar, Greven, Philip, The Protestant Temperament (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977)Google Scholar, and Lasch, Christopher, The Culture of Narcissism (New York: Norton, 1978)Google Scholar. For a review of the sociological literature see Wilkinson, Rupert, The Pursuit of American Character (New York: Harper & Row, 1988)Google Scholar. For an example of a more recent approach to studies of selfhood see Lears, Jackson, “From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880–1930,” in Lears, and Fox, (eds.), The Culture of Consumption (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 1–38Google Scholar. Extremely influential in recent literary and cultural studies has been Greenblatt, Stephen, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).Google Scholar

⁴ Miller, Perry, “The Shaping of the American Character,” in Nature's Nation (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Miller's use of the word “identity” in 1954 came just at the moment when the word was becoming a staple of social science discourse. See Gleason, Philip, “Identifying Identity: A Semantic History,” Journal of American History, 69 (03, 1983), 910–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹¹ The debate can be followed in The Debates and Proceedings of the Congress of the United States (Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1849)Google Scholar. For Burr, , see 794Google Scholar; for Fitzsimons, , 899; supporters' comments on 904 and 902.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ Letters of Mrs. Adams (Boston: Little, Brown, 1840), 1, 146–151Google Scholar; Adams, John quoted in Watts, Steven, The Republic Reborn (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), 33.Google Scholar

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¹⁹ Mayer, J. P. (ed.), Journey to America (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1981 reprint), 218.Google Scholar

²⁰ Channing, William Ellery, Discourses (Boston: C. Bowen, 1832), 167–96Google Scholar. For a superb discussion of New England Unitarianism see Howe, Daniel Walker, The Unitarian Conscience: Harvard Moral Philosophy, 1805–1861 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970).Google Scholar

²¹ Ella Herbert: or, Self-Denial (Boston: Crosby and Nichols, 1845), 16Google Scholar. Elaborating on Foucault's, Michel work, Herzlich, Claudine and Pierret, Janine have argued that “in the nineteenth century…the figure of the sick person crystallized existentially and socially, assuming its modern form,” Illness and Self in Society (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), 29Google Scholar. Also see Baur, Susan, Hypochondria: Woeful Imaginings (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).Google Scholar

²² Harriet Lathrop quoted in Rabinowitz, Richard, The Spiritual Self in Everyday Life (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989), 119Google Scholar; Theodore Dwight Weld quoted in Walters, Ronald, The Antislavery Appeal (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1976), 79Google Scholar. Also see the English novelist Brunton's, MarySelf-Control, first published in 1811 (London: Pandora, 1986 reprint).Google Scholar

²³ Webster, Daniel, An Address Delivered at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the Bunker Hill Monument (Boston: Cummings, Hilliard & Co., 1825), 39.Google Scholar

²⁴ de Gérando, Marie Joseph, Self-Education (Boston: Carter and Hendee, 1830), 150; 70; 90; 95Google Scholar. In America, Gérando's work carried the byline Degérando. Elizabeth Peabody, at the time William Ellery Channing's secretary and a future member of the Transcendentalist circle, translated the work from the French.

²⁵ Ibid., 226; 239.

²⁶ On Franklin's creation of self see especially Seavey, Ormond, Becoming Benjamin Franklin: The Autobiography and the Life (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1988)Google Scholar. It is worth noting that the autobiography contains surprisingly few compound nouns beginning with “self.”

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²⁸ Ibid., 381.

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³⁷ Slater, Joseph (ed.), The Correspondence of Emerson and Carlyle (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 400, 404Google Scholar; JMN, 9, 382.Google Scholar

³⁸ Everett, Edward, Orations and Speeches (Boston: Little, Brown, 1865), 1, 104Google Scholar; Kateb, George, “Thinking About Human Extinction (II): Emerson and Whitman,” Raritan, 6 (Winter, 1987), 2–3.Google Scholar