Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T21:22:08.195Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Towards sustainable grassland and livestock management

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 July 2007

D. R. KEMP*
Affiliation:
Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia
D. L. MICHALK
Affiliation:
Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia
*
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. Email: [email protected]

Summary

Grasslands are one of the world's major ecosystems groups and over the last century their use has changed from being volunteer leys, or a resource on non-arable land, to a productive resource equal to any crop and managed as such. Many grasslands are now being acknowledged as having a multifunctional role in producing food and rehabilitating crop lands, in environmental management and cultural heritage. However, grasslands across the globe are under increasing pressure from increasing human populations, reduced areas with increasing livestock numbers, and declining terms of trade for livestock production, and they are managed to varying degrees of effectiveness. The complexity of grassland uses and the many aspects of grassy ecosystems require a framework wherein solutions for better management can be developed. The present paper discusses a generic approach to grassland management to satisfy these multiple objectives. A focus on ecosystem functionality, i.e. on water, nutrient and energy cycling and on the biodiversity required to sustain those functions, provides a means of resolving the dilemmas faced, through the intermediary, management-related, criteria of herbage mass, which also relates directly to animal production. Emphasis is placed on the opportunities to satisfy multiple objectives. A consideration of the basic relationships between stocking rate and animal production shows that the longer-term, economically optimal stocking rate is associated with improved environmental outcomes. There may be environmental objectives that go beyond economically sustainable limits for livestock producers and in those cases direct payments from the government or others will be needed. These are likely to be where degradation is clearly apparent. The achievement of desirable outcomes in grassland management that satisfy multiple objectives will require new areas of research that seek viable solutions for farmers and society.

Type
Review Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Armstrong, S. F. (1907). The botanical and chemical composition of herbage of pastures and meadows. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 2, 283304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badgery, W. (2003). Managing competition between Nassella trichotoma (serrated tussock) and native grasses. PhD Thesis, University of Sydney.Google Scholar
Bathgate, A. & Pannell, D. J. (2002). Economics of deep-rooted perennials in western Australia. Agricultural Water Management 53, 117132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batisse, M. (1986). Developing and focussing the biosphere reserve concept. Nature and Resources 22, 110.Google Scholar
Bellot, J., Bonet, A., Sanchez, J. R. & Chirino, E. (2001). Likely effects of land use changes on the runoff and aquifer recharge in a semiarid landscape using a hydrological model. Landscape and Urban Planning 55, 4153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bengtsson, J., Engelhardt, K., Giller, P., Hobbie, S., Lawrence, D., Levine, J., Vilà, M. & Wolters, V. (2002). Slippin' and slidin' between the scales: the scaling component of biodiversity–ecosystem functioning relations. In Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (Eds Loreau, M., Naeem, S. & Inchausti, P.), pp. 209220. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bengtsson, J., Angelstam, P., Elmqvist, T., Emanuelsson, U., Folke, C., Ihse, M., Moberg, F. & Nystrom, M. (2003). Reserves, resilience and dynamic landscapes. Ambio 32, 389396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, A. J. (2000). Environmental consequences of increasing production: some current perspectives. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 82, 8995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benton, T. G., Vickery, J. A. & Wilson, J. D. (2003). Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18, 182188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ten Berge, H. F. M., van der Meer, H. G., Carlier, L., Baan Hofman, T. & Neeteson, J. J. (2002). Limits to nitrogen use on grassland. Environmental Pollution 118, 225238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergkamp, G. (1998). A hierarchical view of interactions of runoff and infiltration with vegetation and microtopography in semiarid shrubland. Catena 33, 201220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borin, M. & Bigon, E. (2002). Abatement of NO3-N concentration in agricultural waters by narrow buffer strips. Environmental Pollution 117, 165168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bullock, J. M., Clear Hill, B., Silvertown, J. & Sutton, M. (1995). Gap colonization as a source of grassland community change: effects of gap size and grazing on the rate and mode of colonization by different species. Oikos 72, 273282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, J. M., Pywell, R. F., Burke, M. J. W. & Walker, K. J. (2001). Restoration of biodiversity enhances agricultural production. Ecological Letters 4, 185189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burke, I. C., Lauenroth, W. K. & Coffin, D. P. (1995). Soil organic-matter recovery in semiarid grasslands – implications for the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). Ecological Applications 5, 793801.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. (1994). Landcare: Communities Shaping the Land and the Future. Sydney, NSW, Australia: Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Chadwick, D. R., Pain, B. F. & Brookman, S. K. E. (2000). Nitrous oxide and methane emissions following application of animal manures to grassland. Journal of Environmental Quality 29, 277287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cocks, P. S. (2001). Ecology of herbaceous perennial legumes: a review of characteristics that may provide management options for the control of salinity and waterlogging in dryland cropping systems. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 52, 137151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conant, R. T., Paustian, K. & Elliott, E. T. (2001). Grassland management and conversion into grassland: effects on soil carbon. Ecological Applications 11, 343355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connolly, J. (1976). Some comments on the shape of the gain–stocking rate curve. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 86, 103109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Council of the European Communities (CEEC) (1991). Council Directive of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources (91/676/EEC). Official Journal of the European Communities L375, 18.Google Scholar
Cregan, P. D. & Scott, B. J. (1999). Soil acidification – an agricultural and environmental problem. In Agriculture and the Environmental Imperative (Eds Pratley, J. E. & Robertson, A.), pp. 98127. Melbourne, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing.Google Scholar
Davies, J. M. & Mazumder, A. (2003). Health and environmental policy issues in Canada: the role of watershed management in sustaining clean drinking water quality at surface sources. Journal of Environmental Management 68, 273286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, P., Doering, J., Stockan, J. A., Jones, J. R., Rees, M. E., Vale, J. E. & Sibbald, A. R. (2004). Consequences for biodiversity of reducing inputs to upland temperate pastures: effects on beetles (Coleoptera) of cessation of nitrogen fertilizer application and reductions in stocking rates of sheep. Grass and Forage Science 59, 121135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Giulio, M., Edwards, P. J. & Meister, E. (2001). Enhancing insect diversity in agricultural grasslands: the roles of management and landscape structure. Journal of Applied Ecology 38, 310319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dong, Z. B., Wang, X. M. & Liu, L. Y. (2000). Wind erosion in arid and semiarid China: an overview. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 55, 439444.Google Scholar
Dorrough, J., Yen, A., Turner, V., Clark, S. G., Crosthwaite, J. & Hirth, J. R. (2004). Livestock grazing management and biodiversity conservation in Australian temperate grassy landscapes. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 55, 279295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dowling, P. M., Jones, R. E., Kemp, D. R. & Michalk, D. L. (2001). Valuing the pasture resource – importance of perennials in higher rainfall regions of south-eastern Australia. In Grassland Ecosystems: An Outlook into the 21st Century. Proceedings of the XIX International Grassland Congress, Brazil (Eds Gomide, J. A., Mattos, W. R. S. & Carneiro da Silva, S.), pp. 963964. Sao Pedro, Sao Paulo, Brazil: Fundacao Agrarios Luiz de Queroz.Google Scholar
Doyle, C. J. & Topp, C. F. E. (2002). An economic assessment of the potential for increasing the use of forage legumes in north European livestock systems. In Legume Silages for Animal Production – LEGSIL, Proceedings of an International Workshop, Braunschweig, 8–9 July 2001. Landbauforschung Völkenrode, Sonderheft 234 (Eds Wilkins, R. J. & Paul, C.), pp. 7585. Braunschweig, Germany: Federal Agricultural Research Centre of Germany.Google Scholar
Dunin, F. X. (2002). Integrating agroforestry and perennial pastures to mitigate water logging and secondary salinity. Agricultural Water Management 53, 259270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dye, P. & Jarmain, C. (2004). Water use by black wattle (Acacia mearnsii): implications for the link between removal of invading trees and catchment streamflow response. South African Journal of Science 100, 4044.Google Scholar
Eddleman, L. E. (1983). Some ecological attributes of western juniper. In Research in Range Management. USDA ARS SR-682. pp. 3234. Washington, DC: USDA.Google Scholar
Elliot, A. H. & Carlson, W. T. (2004). Effects of sheep grazing episodes on sediment and nutrient loss in overland flow. Australian Journal of Soil Research 42, 213220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksen, J., Vinther, F. P. & Soegaard, K. (2004). Nitrate leaching and N2-fixation in grasslands of different composition, age and management. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 142, 141151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farruggia, A., Gastal, F. & Scholefield, D. (2004). Assessment of the nitrogen status of grassland. Grass and Forage Science 59, 113120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Firbank, L. G. (2005). Striking a new balance between agricultural production and biodiversity. Annals of Applied Biology 146, 163175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, M. J., Rao, I. M., Ayarza, M. A., Lascano, C. E., Sanz, J. I., Thomas, R. J. & Vera, R. R. (1994). Carbon storage by introduced deep-rooted grasses in the South American savannas. Nature 371, 236238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, L. (1988). Herbs in pastures. Development and research in Britain (1850–1984). Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 5, 97133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frame, J., Charlton, J. F. L. & Laidlaw, A. S. (1998). Temperate Forage Legumes. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.Google Scholar
Gebhart, D. L., Johnson, H. B., Mayeux, H. S. & Polley, H. W. (1994). The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) increases soil organic carbon. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 49, 488492.Google Scholar
Hall, C., McVittie, A. & Moran, D. (2004). What does the public want from agriculture and the countryside? A review of evidence and methods. Journal of Rural Studies 20, 211225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatton, T. J. & Nulsen, R. A. (1999). Towards achieving functional ecosystem mimicry with respect to water cycling in southern Australian agriculture. Agroforestry Systems 45, 203214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, C. (2001). Triple bottom line reporting: the importance of consistency. In Proceedings of Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility in the New Millennium, Deakin University, Melbourne, 26–27 November 2001, pp. 6785.Google Scholar
Hobbie, S. E. (1992). Effects of plant species on nutrient cycling. Trends in Ecological Evolution 7, 336339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hocking, C. (1998). Land management of Nassella areas – implications for conservation areas. Plant Protection Quarterly 13, 8691.Google Scholar
Hughes, J. D., Packer, I. J., Michalk, D. L., Dowling, P. M., King, W. McG., Brisbane, S., Millar, G. D., Priest, S. M., Kemp, D. R. & Koen, T. B. (2006). Sustainable grazing systems for the Central Tablelands of NSW. 4. Soil water dynamics and runoff events for differently managed pasture types. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, 483–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huston, M. A. (1979). A general hypothesis of species diversity. The American Naturalist 113, 81101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ilbery, B. W. & Bowler, I. R. (1998). From agricultural productivism to post-productivism. In The Geography of Rural Change (Ed. Ilbery, B. W.), pp. 5784. London: Longman.Google Scholar
IPCC (1997). IPCC Revised 1996 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Vol. 3, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual. Bracknell, UK: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).Google Scholar
Jarvis, S. C. & Aarts, H. F. M. (2000). Nutrient management from a farming systems perspective. Grassland Science in Europe 5, 363373.Google Scholar
Joffre, R. & Rambal, S. (1993). How tree cover influences the water balance of Mediterranean rangelands. Ecology 74, 570582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, M. B. & Donnelly, A. (2004). Carbon sequestration in temperate grassland ecosystems and the influence of management, climate and elevated CO2. New Phytologist 164, 423439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. J. & Sandland, R. L. (1974). The relation between animal gain and stocking rate: derivation of the relation from the results of grazing trials. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 83, 335342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelm, M., Wachendorf, M., Trott, H., Volkers, K. & Taube, F. (2004). Performance and environmental effects of forage production on sandy soils. III. Energy efficiency in forage production from grassland and maize for silage. Grass and Forage Science 59, 6979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, D. R. (1991). Defining the boundaries and manipulating the system. In Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference of the Grassland Society of New South Wales, pp. 2430. Orange, NSW, Australia: The Grassland Society of New South Wales.Google Scholar
Kemp, D. R. & Dowling, P. M. (1991). Species distribution within improved pastures over central NSW in relation to rainfall and altitude. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 42, 647659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, D. R. & Dowling, P. M. (2000). Towards sustainable perennial pastures: lessons used. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 125132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, D. R. & Michalk, D. L. (1993). Pasture Management: Technology for the 21st Century. Melbourne, VIC, Australia: CSIRO.Google Scholar
Kemp, D. R., Michalk, D. L. & Virgona, J. (2000). Towards more sustainable pastures: lessons learnt. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 343356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, D. R., Michalk, D. L. & Charry, A. A. (2001). The development of performance indicators for sustainable systems. In Proceedings of the 10th Australian Agronomy Conference, February 2001, Hobart, Australia, pp. 4c, 202. The Australian Society of Agronomy. Gosford, NSW, Australia: The Regional Institute Ltd.Google Scholar
Kemp, D. R., Charry, A. A., Whiteley, W. J. & Gardner, M. W. (2002). Australian agricultural ecosystems: searching for biophysical sustainability performance indicators. In Proceedings 13th International Farm Management Congress. Session 10. Arnhem, The Netherlands, July 2002. Cambridge, UK: The International Farm Management Association.Google Scholar
Kemp, D. R., King, W. McG., Gilmour, A. R., Lodge, G. M., Murphy, S. R., Quigley, P. & Sanford, P. (2003). SGS biodiversity theme: the impact of plant biodiversity on the productivity and stability of grazing systems across southern Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 43, 961975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, K. L. & Hutchinson, K. J. (1983). The effects of sheep grazing on invertebrate numbers and biomass in unfertilised natural pastures of the New England Tablelands (NSW). Australian Journal of Ecology 8, 245255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lassey, K. R., Ulyatt, M. J., Martin, R. J., Walker, C. F. & Shelton, I. D. (1997). Methane emissions measured directly from grazing livestock in New Zealand. Atmospheric Environment 31, 29052914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeCain, D. R., Morgan, J. A., Schuman, G. E., Reeder, J. D. & Hart, R. H. (2002). Carbon exchange and species composition of grazed pastures and exclosures in the shortgrass steppe of Colorado. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93, 421435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, F. R., Zhao, L., Zhang, H., Zhang, T. & Shirato, Y. (2004). Wind erosion and airborne dust deposition in farmland during spring in the Horqin Sandy Land of eastern Inner Mongolia, China. Soil and Tillage Research 75, 121130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lunt, I. D. (2003). A protocol for integrated management, monitoring and enhancement of degraded Themeda triandra grasslands based on plantings of indicator species. Restoration Ecology 11, 223230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahmood, K., Morris, J., Collopy, J. & Slavich, P. (2001). Groundwater uptake and sustainability of farm plantations on saline sites in Punjab province, Pakistan. Agricultural Water Management 48, 120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martha, G. B., Corsi, M., Trivelin, P. C. O. & Alves, M. C. (2004). Nitrogen recovery and loss in fertilized elephant grass pasture. Grass and Forage Science 59, 8090.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGechan, M. B. & Topp, C. F. E. (2004). Modelling environmental impacts of deposition of excreted nitrogen by grazing dairy cows. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 103, 149164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIntyre, S., Heard, K. M. & Martin, T. G. (2003). The relative importance of cattle grazing in subtropical grasslands: does it reduce or enhance plant biodiversity? Journal of Applied Ecology 40, 445457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meiners, S. J., Cadenasso, M. L. & Pickett, S. T. A. (2004). Beyond biodiversity: individualistic controls of invasion in a self-assembled community. Ecology Letters 7, 121126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michalk, D. L. (2004). An integrated pasture system for cattle production in Guangdong and Hainan Provinces. In Forages for the Red Soils Area of China (Eds Scott, J. M., McLeod, D. A., Xu, Minggang & Casanova, A. J.), pp. 174190. ACIAR Working Paper No 55. Canberra, ACT, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR).Google Scholar
Michalk, D. L., Dowling, P. M., Kemp, D. R., King, W. McG., Packer, I. J., Holst, P. J., Jones, R. E., Priest, S. M., Millar, G. D., Brisbane, S. & Stanley, D. F. (2003 a). Sustainable grazing systems for the Central Tablelands of New South Wales. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 43, 861874.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michalk, D. L., Liang, C., Feng, Q. & Kemp, D. R. (2003 b). Development of sustainable grazing systems for degraded grassland in Xingan League, Inner Mongolia. In Rangelands in the New Millennium, Proceedings of the VII International Rangeland Congress, South Africa (Eds Allsopp, N., Palmer, A. R., Milton, S. J., Kerley, G. I. H., Kirkham, K. P., Hurt, R. & Brown, C.), pp. 906908. Durban, South Africa: Document Transformation Technologies.Google Scholar
Middleton, T. H. (1905). The improvement of poor pastures. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 1, 122145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, C. P., Rains, J. P., Shaw, K. A. & Middleton, C. H. (1997). Commercial development of Stylosanthes pastures in northern Australia. II. Stylosanthes in the northern Australian beef industry. Tropical Grasslands 31, 509514.Google Scholar
Monteny, G.-J., Bannink, A. & Chadwick, D. (2006). Greenhouse gas abatement strategies for animal husbandry. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112, 163170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, R. M. (1970). South-eastern temperate woodlands and grasslands. In Australian Grasslands, 1st edn (Ed. Moore, R. M.), pp. 169190. Canberra, ACT, Australia: Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Moretto, A. S. & Distel, R. A. (2003). Decomposition of and nutrient dynamics in leaf litter and roots of Poa ligularis and Stipa gyneriodes. Journal of Arid Environments 55, 503514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myklestad, A. (2004). Soil, site and management components of variation in species composition of agricultural grasslands in western Norway. Grass and Forage Science 59, 136143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naeem, S. & Wright, J. P. (2003). Disentangling biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning: deriving solutions to a seemingly insurmountable problem. Ecology Letters 6, 567579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naeth, M. A. & Chanasyk, D. S. (1995). Grazing effects on soil water in Alberta foothills fescue grasslands. Journal of Range Management 48, 528534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naeth, M. A., Chanasyk, D. S., Rothwell, R. L. & Bailey, A. W. (1991). Grazing impacts on soil water in mixed prairie and fescue grassland ecosystems of Alberta. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 71, 313325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Land and Water Resources Audit (2001). Australian Dryland Salinity Assessment 2000: Extent, Impacts, Processes, Monitoring and Management Options. Canberra, ACT, Australia: Land and Water Australia.Google Scholar
Nevens, F. & Rehuel, D. (2003). Effects of cutting or grazing grass swards on herbage yield, nitrogen uptake and residual soil nitrate at different levels of N fertilization. Grass and Forage Science 58, 431449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholas, P. K., Kemp, P. D., Barker, D. J., Brock, J. L. & Grant, D. A. (1997). Production, stability and biodiversity of North Island New Zealand hill pastures. In Grasslands of our World, Proceedings of the 18th International Grassland Congress, Winnipeg, MB, Canada (Eds Buchanan-Smith, J. G., Bailey, L. D. & McCaughey, P.), pp. 21:921:10. Calgary, AB, Canada: Association Management Centre.Google Scholar
Noble, A. D., Thompson, C. H., Jones, R. J. & Jones, R. M. (1998). The long-term impact of two pasture production systems on soil acidification in southern Queensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38, 335343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noble, A. D., Middleton, C., Nelson, P. N. & Rogers, L. G. (2002). Risk mapping of soil acidification under Stylosanthes in northern Australian rangelands. Australian Journal of Soil Research 40, 257267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oenema, O., Kros, H. & de Vries, W. (2003). Approaches and uncertainties in nutrient budgets: implications for nutrient management and environmental policies. European Journal of Agronomy 20, 316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olenick, K. L., Conner, J. R., Wilkins, R. N., Kreuter, U. P. & Hamilton, W. T. (2004). Economic implications of brush treatments to improve water yield. Journal of Range Management 57, 337345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ondersteijn, C. J. M., Beldman, A. C. G., Daatselaar, C. H. G., Giesen, G. W. J. & Huirne, R. B. M. (2002). The Dutch Mineral Accounting System and the European Nitrate Directive: implications for N and P management and farm performance. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 92, 283296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Packer, W. I., Michalk, D. L., Brisbane, S., Dowling, P. M., Millar, G. D., King, W. McG., Kemp, D. R. & Priest, S. J. (2003). Reducing deep drainage through controlled runoff management in high recharge tablelands landscape. In Solutions for a Better Environment, Proceedings of the 11th Australian Agronomy Conference, Geelong, VIC, Australia (Eds Unkovich, M. & O'Leary, G.). Horsham, VIC, Australia: The Australian Society of Agronomy. Available online at: http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/c/8/michalk.htm (verified 3/5/07).Google Scholar
Pannell, D. J. (1999). Social and economic challenges in the development of complex farming systems. Agroforestry Systems 45, 393409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paruelo, J. M. & Lauenroth, W. K. (1996). Relative abundance of plant functional types in grasslands and shrublands of Northern America. Ecological Applications 6, 12121224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinares-Patino, C. S., Ulyatt, M. J., Lassey, K. R., Barry, T. N. & Holmes, C. M. (2003). Persistence of differences between sheep in methane emission under generous grazing conditions. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 140, 227233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, M. L., Turner, N. C. & Young, J. M. (2002). Sustainable cropping systems for high rainfall areas of southwestern Australia. Agricultural Water Management 53, 201211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poschlod, P., Kiefer, S., Tränkle, U., Fischer, S. & Bonn, S. (1998). Species richness in calcareous grassland is affected by dispersability in space and time. Applied Vegetation Science 1, 7590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabalais, N. N., Turner, R. E., Wiseman, W. J. Jr & Boesch, D. F. (1991). A brief summary of hypoxia on the northern Gulf of Mexico continental shelf 1985–1988. In Modern and Ancient Continental Shelf Anoxia (Eds Tyson, R. V. & Pearson, T. H.), pp. 3547. Geological Society Special Publication No. 58. London: Geological Society.Google Scholar
Raju, K. C. M. (1998). Importance of recharging depleted aquifers: state of the art of artificial recharge in India. Journal of the Geological Society of India 51, 429454.Google Scholar
Reid, A. M. (2004). Effect of fertiliser and grazing on grassland invertebrates. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney.Google Scholar
Reeder, J. D. & Schuman, G. E. (2002). Influence of livestock grazing on C sequestration in semi-arid mixed-grass and short-grass rangelands. Environmental Pollution 116, 457463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeve, I. J., Kaine, G., Lees, J. W. & Barclay, E. (2000). Producer perceptions of pasture decline and grazing management. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 331341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Retzer, V. (2006). Impacts of grazing and rainfall variability on the dynamics of a Sahelian rangeland revisited (Hein 2006) – new insights from old data. Journal of Arid Environments 67, 157164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridley, A. M., White, R. E., Helyar, K. R., Morrison, G. R., Heng, L. K. & Fisher, R. (2000). Nitrate leaching loss under annual and perennial pastures with and without lime on a duplex (texture contrast) soil in humid south eastern Australia. European Journal of Soil Science 52, 237252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridley, A. M., Mele, P. M. & Beverly, C. R. (2004). Legume-based farming in Southern Australia: developing sustainable systems to meet environmental challenges. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 36, 12131221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rimski-Korsakov, H., Rubio, G. & Lavado, R. S. (2004). Potential nitrate losses under different agricultural practices in the pampas region, Argentina. Agricultural Water Management 65, 8394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, G. P. & Swinton, S. M. (2005). Reconciling agricultural productivity and environmental integrity: a grand challenge for agriculture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3, 3846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumball, W. (1986). ‘Grasslands Puna’ chicory (Cichorium intybus L.). New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture 14, 105107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salama, R., Hatton, T. & Dawes, W. (1999 a). Predicting land use impacts on regional scale groundwater recharge and discharge. Journal of Environmental Quality 28, 446460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salama, R. B., Otto, C. J. & Fitzpatrick, R. W. (1999 b). Contribution of groundwater conditions to soil and water salinisation. Hydrogeology Journal 7, 4664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schilling, K. E. & Wolter, C. F. (2001). Contribution of base flow to non-point source pollution loads in an agricultural watershed. Ground Water 39, 4958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlesinger, W. H. (1990). Evidence from chronosequence studies for a low carbon-storage potential of soils. Nature 348, 232233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholefield, D., Tyson, K. C., Garwood, E. A., Armstrong, A. C., Hawkins, J. & Stone, A. C. (1993). Nitrate leaching from grazed grassland lysimeters: effects of fertiliser input, field drainage, age of sward and pattern of weather. Journal of Soil Science 44, 601613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholes, R. J. & Archer, S. R. (1997). Tree–grass interactions in savannas. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28, 517544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholes, R. J. & Noble, I. R. (2001). Climate change: storing carbon on land. Science 294, 10121013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuman, G. E., Reeder, J. D., Manley, J. T., Hart, R. H. & Manley, W. A. (1999). Impact of grazing management on the carbon and nitrogen balance of a mixed-grass rangeland. Ecological Applications 9, 6571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, B. J., Ridley, A. M. & Conyers, M. K. (2000). Management of soil acidity in long-term pastures of south-eastern Australia: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 11731198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sikka, A. K., Samra, J. S., Sharda, V. N., Samraj, P. & Lakshmanan, V. (2003). Low flow and high flow responses to converting natural grassland into bluegum (Eucalyptus globulus) in Nilgiris watersheds of South India. Journal of Hydrology 270, 1226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sincich, F. (2002). Bedouin Traditional Medicine in the Syrian Steppe: Al-Khatib Speaks: An Interview with a Hadidin Traditional Doctor. Rome: FAO.Google Scholar
Singh, D. K., Bird, B. R. & Saul, G. R. (2003). Maximising the use of soil water by herbaceous species in the high rainfall zone of southern Australia; a review. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 677691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slavich, P. G., Walker, G. R., Jolly, I. D., Hatton, T. J. & Dawes, W. R. (1999). Dynamics of Eucalyptus largiflorens growth and water use in response to modified watertable and flooding regimes on a saline floodplain. Agricultural Water Management 39, 245264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smil, V. (1999). Nitrogen in crop production: an account of global flows. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13, 647662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smil, V. (2000). Phosphorus in the environment: natural flows and human interference. Annual Review of Energy and Environment 25, 5388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. S., Shiel, R. S., Bardgett, R. D., Millward, D., Corkhill, P., Rolph, G., Hobbs, P. J. & Peacock, S. (2003). Soil microbial community, fertility, vegetation and diversity as targets in the restoration management of a meadow grassland. Journal of Applied Ecology 40, 5164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smoliak, S., Dormaar, J. F. & Johnston, A. (1972). Long-term grazing effects on Stipa-Bouteloua prairie soils. Journal of Range Management 25, 246250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soussana, J. F., Loiseau, P., Vuichard, N., Ceschia, E., Balesdent, J., Chevallier, T. & Arrouays, D. (2004). Carbon cycling and sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands. Soil Use and Management 20, 219230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stapledon, R. G. (1927). Grassland Research – Some Recent Developments. Auckland University College (University of New Zealand) Blletin No. 3, Agricultural Series No. 2.Google Scholar
Stapledon, R. G. & Jenkins, T. J. (1916). Pasture problems: indigenous plants in relation to habitat and sown species. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 8, 2664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutherland, W. J. (2002 a). Conservation biology: openness in management. Nature 418, 834835.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutherland, W. J. (2002 b). Restoring a sustainable countryside. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17, 148150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swain, A. (2001). Water wars: fact or fiction? Futures 33, 769781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swift, M. J., Heal, O. W. & Anderson, J. M. (1979). Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Studies in Ecology, Vol. 5. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Thomas, D. & Sumberg, J. E. (1995). A review of the evaluation and use of tropical forage legumes in sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 54, 151163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thurow, T. L., Blackburn, W. H., Warren, S. D. & Taylor, C. A. Jr (1987). Rainfall interception by midgrass, shortgrass and live oak mottes. Journal of Range Management 40, 455460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thurow, T. L., Thurow, A. P. & Garriga, M. D. (2000). Policy prospects for brush control to increase off-site water yield. Journal of Range Management 53, 2331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thurow, A. P., Conner, J. R., Thurow, T. L. & Garriga, M. D. (2001). A preliminary analysis of Texas ranchers' willingness to participate in a brush control cost-sharing program to improve off-site water yields. Ecological Economics 37, 139152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilman, D. (1996). Biodiversity: population versus ecosystem stability. Ecology 77, 350363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilman, D., Cassman, K. G., Matson, P. A., Naylor, R. & Polasky, S. (2002). Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418, 671677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tscharntke, T., Klein, A. M., Kruess, A., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Thies, C. (2005). Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity – ecosystem service management. Ecology Letters 8, 857874.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valk, H., Leusink-Kappers, I. E. & van Vuuren, A. M. (2000). Effect of reducing nitrogen fertilizer on grassland on grass intake, digestibility and milk production of dairy cows. Livestock Production Science 63, 2738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Ruijven, J., de Deyn, G. B. & Berendse, F. (2003). Diversity reduces invasibility in experimental plant communities: the role of plant species. Ecology Letters 6, 910918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Wesemael, B., Poesen, J., Benet, A. S., Barrionuevo, L. C. & Puigdefabregas, J. (1998). Collection and storage of runoff from hillslopes in a semi-arid environment: geomorphic and hydrologic aspects of the aljibe system in Almeria Province, Spain. Journal of Arid Environments 40, 114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanclay, F. (2004). Social principles for agricultural extension to assist in the promotion of natural resource management. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 44, 213222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandermeer, J. & Perfecto, I. (1997). The agroecosystem: a need for the conservation biologist's lens. Conservation Biology 11, 591592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vere, D. T., Campbell, M. H. & Kemp, D. R. (1993). Pasture Improvement Budgets for the Central and Southern Tablelands of New South Wales. New South Wales Agriculture Bulletin. Orange, NSW, Australia: NSW Agriculture.Google Scholar
Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Lubchenco, J. & Melillo, J. M. (1997). Human domination of the earth's ecosystem. Science 277, 494499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vleeshouwers, L. M. & Verhagen, A. (2002). Carbon emission and sequestration by agricultural land use: a model study for Europe. Global Change Biology 8, 519530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, K. J., Stevens, P. A., Stevens, D. P., Mountford, J. O., Manchester, S. J. & Pywell, R. F. (2004). The restoration and re-creation of species-rich lowland grassland on land formerly managed for intensive agriculture in the UK. Biological Conservation 119, 118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkinson, A. R. & Ormerod, S. J. (2001). Grasslands, grazing and biodiversity: editors’ introduction. Journal of Applied Ecology 38, 233237.Google Scholar
Weiner, J. (2003). Ecology – the science of agriculture in the 21st century. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 141, 371377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westoby, M., Walker, B. H. & Noy-Meir, I. (1989). Opportunistic management of rangelands not at equilibrium. Journal of Range Management 42, 266274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, D. A., Dunin, F. X., Turner, N. C., Ward, B. H. & Galbraith, J. H. (2002). Water use by contour-planted belts of trees comprised of four Eucalyptus species. Agricultural Water Management 53, 133152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, G. A. (2001). From productivism to post-productivism … and back again? Exploring the (un)changed natural and mental landscapes of European agriculture. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 26, 77102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, A. D. & Simpson, R. J. (1994). The pasture resource base: status and issues. In Pasture Management: Technology for the 21st Century (Eds Kemp, D. R. & Michalk, D. L.), pp. 125. Melbourne, VIC, Australia: CSIRO.Google Scholar
World Resources Institute (2000). World Resources 2000–2001: People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.Google Scholar
Wright, A. L., Hons, F. M. & Rouquette, F. M. (2004). Long-term management impacts on soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics of grazed bermudagrass pastures. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 36, 18091816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, R. & Tiessen, H. (2002). Effect of land use on soil degradation in Alpine grassland soil, China. Soil Science Society of America Journal 66, 16481655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, G. (2003). Who Cares about the Environment in 2003? Sydney, NSW, Australia: Department of Environment and Conservation. Available online at: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/whocares (verified 3/4/07).Google Scholar
Zhou, Z., Sun, O. J., Huang, J., Gao, Y. & Han, X. (2006). Land use affects the relationship between species diversity and productivity at the local scale in a semi-arid steppe ecosystem. Functional Ecology 20, 753762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar