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3 The other categories classified by Freedom House are “free” (91 countries) and “partly free” (58 countries).

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8 Project Ploughshares Project Ploughshares R2P: East, West, and Southern African Perspectives on Preventing and Responding to Crises (2005, Project Ploughshares) at 2.

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21 G Mugumya “Peace, security and the responsibility to protect: Policy options for the AU's Peace and Security Council” (keynote speech at an Institute for Public Policy Research/Institute for Security Studies meeting on “Protecting civilians in African crises: Is military force the only effective response?”, London, 14 September 2006).

22 The London Treaty for the Pacification of Greece (1827), available at: <http://www.arts.yorku.ca/hist/tgallant/documents/1827treatyoflondon.pdf> (last accessed 14 April 2008).

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31 UN Charter, art 52.

32 Id, art 53.

33 There have also been a few cases of single country interventions into a neighbouring state. For example, Tanzania intervened in Uganda and overthrew Idi Amin in the late 1970s. Although Kenya, Nigeria, Libya and Sudan objected to this, the international community response was generally muted, even though intervention by Vietnam in Cambodia at around the same time drew much reaction. The intervention was accepted by many as Tanzania acting in self-defence and was not even discussed by the UN Security Council or General Assembly. It was however discussed by the Organization of African Unity on a number of occasions. See Murphy, SDHumanitarian Intervention: The United Nations in an Evolving World Order (1996, University of Pennsylvania Press) at 106Google Scholar; Wheeler, NJSaving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (2000, Oxford University Press) at 122Google Scholar. A more recent example is that of France intervening in the DRC in 2003. However, that intervention had UN and European Union authorization and played a limited role, while the UN organized its own force. See Holt, VK and Shanahan, MKAfrican Capacity-Building for Peace Operations: UN Collaboration with the African Union and ECOWAS (2005, Stimson Center) at 50.Google Scholar

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37 “The common African position on the proposed reform of the UN: ‘The Ezulwini Consensus’” (7th extraordinary session of the AU Executive Council, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 7–8 March 2005).

38 Available at: <http://www.au2002.gov.za/docs/key_oau/au_act.htm> (last accessed 14 April 2008).

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51 Id at para 13.

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57 Id at para 4.19.

58 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States) 1986 ICJ (27 June).

59 Id at paras 267–68.

60 Powell “The African Union's emerging peace and security regime”, above at note 25 at 7.

61 A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility: Report of the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change (2005, United Nations).

62 Id at para 201.

63 Id at para 203.

64 UN General Assembly, 2005 World Summit Outcome: UN doc A/60/L.1 (15 September 2005).

65 A More Secure World, above at note 61 at para 135.

66 CERD/C/67/1 14 October 2005.

67 CERD “Declaration on the prevention of genocide”, available at: <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/declaration_genocide.doc> (last accessed 16 April 2008).

68 I Matheson “First Rwanda, then Darfur, and next? How we can help to end these horrors” (16 October 2006) Times Online, available at: <http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article601484.ece> (last accessed 16 April 2008).

69 UN press release: “Secretary General appoints Francis Deng of Sudan as Special Advisor for Prevention of Genocide, Mass Atrocities” (29 May 2007, United Nations Department of Public Information), available at: <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/sga1070.doc.htm> (last accessed 16 April 2008).

70 UN News Centre press release: “Preventing mass atrocities ‘sacred calling’ for UN and the world – Ban Ki-moon” (10 October 2007, UN News Centre), available at: <http://www.un.org/apps/news/storyAr.asp?NewsID=24260&Cr=ki-moon&Cr1=> (last accessed 16 April 2008).

71 UN News Centre press release: “Secretary General appoints special adviser to focus on responsibility to protect” (21 February 2008, UN News Centre), available at: <http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=25702&Cr=ki-moon&Cr1> (last accessed 16 April 2008).

72 Press release: “Launch of new global centre against mass atrocity crimes” (14 February 2008, The Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect).

73 Including Australia, Belgium, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Rwanda, the UK, the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation, and the Open Society Institute.

74 See further Project Ploughshares Responsibility to Protect, above at note 8.

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77 “Declaration on a Framework for an OAU Response to Unconstitutional Changes in Government” (36th ordinary session of heads of state and government of the OAU, Lomé, Togo, 10–12 July 2000) AHG/Decl 5 (XXXVI).

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82 Id, art 4(i).

83 Id, art 4(f).

84 Id, art 4(b).

85 Id, art 4(e).

86 Id, art 4(o).

87 Id, art 4(p).

88 Id, art 3(5).

89 Id, art 4(m).

90 Id, art 4(l).

91 Id, art 4(n).

92 Id, art 4(j).

93 Id, art 4(g).

94 Id, art 4(h).

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97 See Baimu and Sturman “Amendment to the African Union's right”, above at note 95 at 37.

98 See note 37 above.

99 World Summit Outcome, above at note 64 at para 139.

100 ACHPR/Res.117 (XXXXII) 07: resolution on strengthening the responsibility to protect in Africa (42nd ordinary session held in Brazzaville, DRC, 15–28 November 2007).

101 Ibid.

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110 AU Protocol Establishing the Peace and Security Council, art 2.

111 Id, art 2.

112 Id, art 7(h).

113 Id, art 7(i).

114 Id, art 7(n).

115 Id, art 7(j).

116 Id, art 7(k).

117 Id, art 7(m).

118 Id, art 7(g).

119 Id, art 7(f).

120 Id, art 7(o).

121 Id, art 7(p).

122 Id, art 7(r).

123 Id, art 20.

124 Quoted in Powell “The African Union's emerging peace and security regime”, above at note 25 at 1.

125 Res 1545, S/Res/1545 (2004), 21 May 2004. See Holt, VK and Shanahan, MKAfrican Capacity-Building for Peace Operations: UN Collaboration with the African Union and ECOWAS (2005, Stimson Center) at 49.Google Scholar

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127 Peace and Security Council press release: PSC/PR/Stat.(XXXVI)-(ii) “Statement” (2005, African Union).

128 See further Guicherd, CThe AU in Sudan: Lessons for the African Standby Force (2007, International Peace Academy).Google Scholar

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132 See <http://www.ecowas.int/> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

133 H Bakhoum “ECOWAS as regional peace broker”, available at: <http://www.bmlv.gv.at/pdf_pool/publikationen/sorting_out_the_mess_ecowas_regional_peace_broker_h_bakhoum.pdf> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

134 See <http://www.ecowas.cc/paps.php#ECOMOG> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

135 Bakhoum “ECOWAS as regional peace broker”, above at note 133.

136 Res 1464, S/Res/1464 (2003), 4 February 2003. See Holt and Shanahan African Capacity-Building, above at note 125.

137 Res 1497, S/Res/1497 (2003), 1 August 2003. See Holt and Shanahan id at 49.

138 ECOWAS Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peace-Keeping and Security, art 52, available at: <http://www.iss.co.za/af/regorg/unity_to_union/pdfs/ecowas/ConflictMecha.pdf> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

139 See <http://www.court.ecowas.int/> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

140 See for example ECOWAS press release: “ECOWAS electoral observers in Sénégal” (press release no 11/2007, 25 February 2007, Abuja) and ECOWAS press release “ECOWAS observers to be deployed in Nigeria for general elections” (press release no 28/2007, 4 April 2007, Abuja).

141 ECOWAS press release: “Heads of election management bodies establish [sic]” (Press release008/2008, 9 February 2008, Conakry).

142 ECOWAS Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security (1999), art 25.

143 Ibid.

144 Ibid.

145 See <http://www.ecowas.int/> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

146 Comprising Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda.

147 See draft Protocol for the Establishment of the Eastern Africa Standby Brigade (2005, IGAD), available at: <http://www.iss.org.za/AF/RegOrg/unity_to_union/pdfs/igad/easbrigfeb04prot.pdf> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

148 See <http://www.africa-union.org/Recs/IGAD_Profile.pdf> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

149 J Young “Weaknesses of IGAD mediation in the Sudan peace process” (28 January 2008) Sudan Tribune at 5.

150 “Tackle roots of deadly Africa cattle raids – IGAD” (28 May 2007) Reuters Alertnet, available at: <http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/B331348.htm> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

151 Comprising Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda.

152 Comprising Angola, Burundi, Comoros, DRC, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

153 See <http://www.easbrig.org/about.php> (last accessed 3 December 2007).

154 Comprising Angola, Botswana, DRC, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

155 See <http://www.sadc.int/english/about/profile/index.php> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

156 The Southern African Development Coordination Conference was established in 1980 and was transformed into SADC in 1992.

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160 Id, art 11(2).

161 Id, art 3.

162 Id, art 11(3)(c).

163 Id, art 11(3)(d).

164 Strategic Indicative Plan for the Organ on Politics, Defence, and Security Cooperation, objective 1, available at: <http://www.sadc.int/content/english/key_documents/sipo/sipo_en.pdf> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

165 See <http://www.ceeac-eccas.org/> (last accessed 3 December 2007).

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168 Comprising Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone.

169 Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Togo and Tunisia.

170 See <http://www.cen-sad.org/new/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=33&Itemid=76> (last accessed 16 April 2008).

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175 Ibid.

176 UN press release 2008 “Kenya: UN genocide adviser urges end to violence in Kenya, sends staffer there” (28 January 2008, UN News Service), available at <http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=25425&Cr=kenya&Cr1> (last accessed 17 April 2008).

177 Archbishop D Tutu “Taking the responsibility to protect” (19 February 2008) International Herald Tribune.