1 Mujih, E “‘Co-deregulation’ of multinational companies operating in developing countries: Partnering against corporate social responsibility?” (2008) 16 African Journal of International & Comparative Law 249CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Adeyeye, A “Corporate responsibility in international law: Which way to go?” (2007) 11 Singapore Year Book of International Law 141Google Scholar at 142. MNCs are companies which operate in more than one country. Such corporations use a range of strategies in order to operate and expand their business; some of these are through ownership links, while others may be contractual in nature. Generally, MNCs’ activities are vast in their scope, with the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) suggesting that their activities account for well over 75% of world trade. See generally UNCTAD “Investment report 2009”, cited in Jonge, A “Transnational corporations and international law: Bringing TNCs out of the accountability vacuum” (2011) 7/11Critical Perspectives on International Business 66CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 66. Also see J Mikler “Global companies as actors in global policy and governance” in J Mikler (ed) The Handbook of Global Companies (2013, Wiley-Blackwell Publishing) 1 at 4–5. This part of the article focuses on the regulation of MNCs via international mechanisms.

2 Mujih, id at 253.

3 Ibid.

4 See generally A Clapham Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (2006, Oxford University Press).

5 Available at: <http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_101234.pdf> (last accessed 3 July 2015).

6 Id, “Introduction”.

7 Id, para 2.

8 Ibid.

9 ILO “A guide to The Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy” (2002) at 4.

10 Ibid.

11 The Declaration, para 5.

12 J Somavia “Foreword” to the Declaration at v.

13 P Muchlinski Multinational Enterprises and the Law (1st ed, 1999, Blackwell) at 460.

14 Id at 461.

15 Id at 460.

16 Id at 459.

17 B Hepple “Labour regulation in international markets” in S Picciotto and R Mayne (eds) Regulating International Business: Beyond Liberalization (1999, Macmillan) 183 at 193.

18 Muchlinski Multinational Enterprises, above at note 13 at 481.

19 Available at: <http://mneguidelines.oecd.org/text/> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

20 See statement by the conference chair at the ministerial special session on the revision of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (27 June 2000), cited in Tully, S “The 2000 review of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises” (2001) 50/2International and Comparative Law Quarterly 394CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 394. See generally Oshionebo, E “The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises as mechanisms for sustainable development of natural resources: Real solutions or window dressing?” (2013) 17/2Lewis & Clark Law Review 545Google Scholar.

21 Hepple “Labour regulation”, above at note 17 at 193.

22 Ibid.

23 J Murray “A new phase in the regulation of multinational enterprises: The role of the OECD” (2001) 30 Industrial Law Journal 255 at 268.

24 Friends of the Earth (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) “A history of attempts to regulate the activities of transnational corporations: What lessons can be learned”, cited in Emeseh, E et al. “Corporations, CSR and self regulation: What lessons from the global financial crisis?” (2010) 11/2German Law Journal 230Google Scholar at 240–41.

25 Id at 241.

26 “Guidelines for multinational enterprises: 2011 edition”, available at: <http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/48004323.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

27 “The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises: Frequently asked questions”, available at: <http://www.oecd.org/corporate/mne/theoecdguidelinesformultinationalenterprisesfrequentlyaskedquestions.htm> (last accessed 15 August 2015).

28 “Guidelines for multinational enterprises”, above at note 26 at 13.

29 E Mujih Regulating Multinationals in Developing Countries: A Case Study of the Chad-Cameroon Oil and Pipeline Project (2012, Gower) at 146.

30 Ibid.

31 The Guidelines (2000), cited in id at 148.

32 Muchlinski, PT “Corporation in international litigation: Problem of jurisdiction and the United Kingdom asbestos case” (2001) 50 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 24.

33 Mujih Regulating Multinationals, above at note 29 at 149.

34 Ibid.

35 Carasco, E and Singh, J “Human rights in global business ethics codes” (2008) 113/3Business and Society Review 347CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 357. Also cited in Mujih Regulating Multinationals, above at note 29 at 136.

36 J Clapp (2003) “Transnational corporations and global environmental governance”, available at: <http://www.trentu.ca/org/tipec/3clapp4.pdf> (last accessed 10 July 2013).

37 Ibid.

38 Ibid.

39 Available at: <http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.2003.12.Rev.2.En> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

40 Emeseh et al “Corporations, CSR and self regulation”, above at note 24 at 242.

41 Amnesty International “The UN Human Rights Norms for Business: Towards legal accountability” (2004), available at: <http://www.banktrack.org/manage/ems_files/download/the_un_human_rights_norms_for_business_towards_legal_accountability/the_un_human_rights_norms_for_business_towards_legal_accountability.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

42 Ibid.

43 Sustainable Development Working Group “UN Global Compact”, available at: <http://sdwg.org/un-global-compact/> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

44 “What is UN Global Compact?: Our mission”, available at: <https://www.unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/mission> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

45 “What is UN Global Compact?: Our participants”, available at: <https://www.unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/participants> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

46 Generally see Mujih Regulating Multinationals, above at note 29 at 140–41.

47 Amao, O “Corporate social responsibility, multinationals and the law in Nigeria: Controlling multinationals in home state” (2008) 52/1Journal of African Law 89CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also see Eweje, G “Environmental costs and responsibilities resulting from oil exploration in developing countries: The case of the Niger Delta of Nigeria” (2006) 69 Journal of Business Ethics 27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 WC Bradford “Beyond good and evil: Toward a solution of the conflict between corporate profit and human rights” at 28 (working paper series, 2007), available at: <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=991241> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

49 P Haack et al “Exploring the constitutive conditions for a self-energizing effect of CSR standards: The case of the ‘Equator Principles’” (University of Zurich Institute of Organization and Administrative Science IOU working paper no 115, November 2011), available at: <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1706267> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

50 See: <http://www.equator-principles.com/index.php/members-reporting> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

51 Ibid.

52 International Law Association “Final report: International civil litigation for human rights violations” (2012), available at: <http://business-humanrights.org/en/report-on-intl-civil-litigation-for-human-rights-violations#c68637> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

53 Jonge, A “Transnational corporations and international law: Bringing TNCs out of the accountability vacuum” (2011) 7/1Critical Perspectives on International Business 66CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 74.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid.

56 Ibid.

57 Ibid.

58 J Ruggie “Kiobel and corporate social responsibility: An issues brief” (2012), available at: <http://www.hks.harvard.edu/m-rcbg/CSRI/KIOBEL_AND_CORPORATE_SOCIAL_RESPONSIBILITY%20(3).pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

59 International Law Association “Final report”, above at note 52 at 3.

60 See generally Ake, C “The African context of human rights” (1987) 34/1–2Africa Today 5Google Scholar.

61 Id at 10.

62 Jonge “Transnational corporations”, above at note 53 at 77. However, allusions were made to Ruggie's Report in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Community Court in The Registered Trustees of the Socio-Economic Rights & Accountability Project (SERAP) v President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and Others, suit no ECW/CCJ/APP/O8/09 and ruling  no ECW/CCJ/APP/07/10 (ECOWAS, 10 December 2010), available at: <http://www.worldcourts.com/ecowasccj/eng/decisions/2010.12.10_SERAP_v_Nigeria.htm> (last accessed 28 July 2015). The court held (at para 68) that, notwithstanding developments in the international soft law mechanisms (ie Ruggie's Report) on MNCs, “the process of codification of international law has not arrived at a point that allows the claim against corporations to be brought before International Courts”. However, it has been argued that “the significance of this case is the reference to the Ruggie's Framework by Counsel for the plaintiffs and also by the Court. This is indicative of the potential of the Ruggie's process to influence developments in this area”: Amao, O “Emergent state practice on the creation and practice on corporate social responsibility” (2014) 1/1State Practice and International Law Journal 117Google Scholar at 127.

63 Adeyeye “Corporate responsibility”, above at note 1 at 147.

64 T Lambooji “Corporate social responsibility: Legal and semi-legal frameworks supporting CSR: Developments 2000–2010 and case studies” (PhD dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law, Leiden University, 2010) at 423.

65 Id at 423.

66 Ibid.

67 See <http://www.voluntaryprinciples.org/> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

68 Business and Human Rights Resource Centre “Voluntary principles on security and human rights”, available at: <http://www.business-humanrights.org/ConflictPeacePortal/Specialinitiatives/VoluntaryPrinciples> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

69 E Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations in Domestic and International Regimes: An African Case Study (2009, University of Toronto Press) at 89.

70 Adeyeye “Corporate responsibility”, above at note 1 at 147.

71 Ibid.

72 See: <https://eiti.org/eiti> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

73 Ibid.

74 See: <https://eiti.org/countries> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

75 See: <http://eiti.org/Nigeria> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

76 Available at: <http://www.kimberleyprocess.com/> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

77 Available at: <http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards/iso26000.htm> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

78 X Dieux and F Vincke “La responsabilité sociale des entreprises: Leurre ou promesse?” [Corporate social responsibility: Illusion or promise?] (2005) 1 Revue de Droit des Affaires Internationales 13. Emeseh et al “Corporations, CSR and self regulation”, above at note 24.

79 Dieux and Vincke ibid.

80 S Picciotto “Corporate social responsibility for international business” in “The development dimension of RDI: Policy and rule-making perspective” (proceedings of UN Conference on Trade and Development experts’ meeting, Geneva, 6–8 November 2002) 151 at 157.

81 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 80.

82 Oliverio, ME “The implementation of a code of ethics: The early efforts of one entrepreneur” (1989) 8/5Journal of Business Ethics 367CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 374.

83 P Murphy “Corporate ethics statements: An update” in OF Williams (ed) Global Codes of Conduct: An Idea Whose Time has Come (2000, Notre Dame Press) 295.

84 O Martin-Ortega and R Wallace “The interaction between corporate codes of conduct and international law: A study of women and children in the textile industry” in S Tully (ed) Research Handbook on Corporate Legal Responsibility (2005, Edward Edgar) 302.

85 N Kearney “Corporate codes of conduct: The privatised application of labour standards” in S Picciotto and R Mayne (eds) Regulating International Business: Beyond Liberalization (1999, Macmillan) 205 at 210.

86 For an analysis of codes of conduct in the UK public sector, see Ekhator, E “Public sector ethics in the United Kingdom: An overview” (2012) 4/2Inkanyiso: The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 91Google Scholar.

87 Cabinet Office “Ministerial conduct and guidance” (2011), available at: <https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/cabinet-office/series/ministerial-conduct-and-guidance> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

88 Williams, S et al. “Civil regulation and HRM: The impact of civil society organisations on the policies and practices of employers” (2011) 21/1Human Resource Management Journal 45CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

89 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 80.

90 A Wawryk “Regulating transnational corporations through codes of conduct” in J Frynas and S Pegg (eds) Transnational Corporations and Human Rights (2003, Macmillan) 53.

91 Ibid.

92 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 82.

93 Wawryk “Regulating transnational corporations”, above at note 90 at 53–73.

94 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 82.

95 Mujih Regulating Multinationals, above at note 29 at 135–50.

96 Lambooji “Corporate social responsibility”, above at note 64.

97 N Stappenbeck “NGOs and civil regulation of Shell in Nigeria” (masters thesis submitted to Lund University, 2010).

98 Code of Conduct of the Petrobras Group, available at: <http://www.petrobras.com.br/en/about-us/corporate-strategy/downloads/pdf/system-code-of-ethics.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

99 Ibid.

100 Total “Society and environment report” (2011), available at: <http://www.csr-report2011.total.com/Public/Files/Total_RSE_en.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

101 Total “Code of conduct” (2011), available at: <http://www.total.com/MEDIAS/MEDIAS_INFOS/5197/EN/Total-2011-code-of-conduct-EN.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

102 Ibid.

103 Addax Petroleum “Ethics: General principles – Summary of the code of conduct”, available at: <http://www.addaxpetroleum.com/images/pdf/Ethics-Booklet.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

104 Addax Petroleum “Living our values”, available at: <http://www.addaxpetroleum.com/corporate-social-responsibility/living-our-values> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

105 Ibid.

106 Stappenbeck “NGOs and civil regulation”, above at note 97 at 23.

107 Shell “General business principles”, available at: <http://s02.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/aboutshell/downloads/who-we-are/sgbps/sgbp-english.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

108 Ibid.

109 Ibid.

110 Shell “Code of conduct” (2014) at 9, available at: <http://s06.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell-new/local/corporate/corporate/downloads/pdf/codeofconduct-english-2010.pdf> (last assessed 28 July 2015).

111 Oshionebo, E “Transnational corporations, civil society and social responsibility in Nigeria's oil and gas industry” (2007) 15/1African Journal of International and Comparative Law 107CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

112 M Zimmer “Oil companies in Nigeria: Emerging good practice or still fuelling conflict?” in N Deitelhoff and K Wolf (eds) Corporate Social Responsibility: Corporate Governance Contributions to Peace and Security in Zones of Conflict (2010, Palgrave Macmillan) 58 at 71.

113 Mujih Regulating Multinationals, above at note 29 at 156.

114 “Shell, Mobil quit Peru gas project” (17 July 1998) Bloomberg News, available at: <http://articles.latimes.com/1998/jul/17/business/fi-4444> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

115 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 83.

116 Ibid.

117 Available at: <http://www.exxonmobil.com/UK-English/files/sbc_2008.pdf> at 5 (last accessed 28 July 2015).

118 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 83.

119 Also cited in id at 83.

120 Id at 70.

121 Ekhator, E “Improving access to environmental justice under the African Charter: The roles of NGOs in Nigeria” (2014) 22/1African Journal of International and Comparative Law 63CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 66.

122 Ebobrah, S “The future of economic, social and cultural rights litigation” (2007) 1/2CALS Review of Nigerian Law and Practice 108Google Scholar at 111 defines socio-cultural rights as “the body of human rights that are essential for the promotion of conditions necessary for the advancement of economic, social and cultural well being of people”. Furthermore, Nigeria has ratified the International Covenant on Social and Economic Rights and it “has not entered a reservation, declaration or objection to any of the provisions of [the covenant]”: Yusuf, H “Oil on troubled waters: Multinational corporations and realising human rights in the developing world, with specific reference to Nigeria” (2008) 8 African Human Rights Law Journal 79Google Scholar at 81.

123 Amaeshi, K and Amao, O “Corporate social responsibility in transnational spaces: Exploring influences of varieties of capitalism on expressions of corporate codes of conduct in Nigeria” (2009) 86 Journal of Business Ethics 225CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 225.

124 However, there appears to be no substantial change in the CSR strategy of Addax as a Chinese company and its previous incarnation as a Canadian firm.

125 Bu, Q “China's new approach to CSR in Congo: Is the leverage turning to China?” (2010) 5 International Business Law Journal 485Google Scholar.

126 Id at 487.

127 Ibid.

128 P Bosshard “China's role in financing African infrastructure” (2007) at 13, available at: <http://www.iese.ac.mz/lib/saber/fd_384.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

129 Ibid.

130 M Forstater et al “Corporate responsibility in African development: Insights from an emerging dialogue” (Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative working paper no 60, 2010), available at: <http://www.hks.harvard.edu/m-rcbg/CSRI/publications/workingpaper_60.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

131 Ibid.

132 Id at 19.

133 Ibid.

134 See: <https://www.unglobalcompact.org/engage-locally/asia/china> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

135 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 84.

136 Total “Society and environment report”, above at note 100 at 30.

137 Ibid.

138 Ibid.

139 Oshionebo Regulating Transnational Corporations, above at note 69 at 70.

140 Ibid.

141 Adeyeye “Corporate responsibility”, above at note 1 at 147.

142 Total “Society and environment report”, above at note 100 at 29.

143 Ibid.

144 See: <https://eiti.org/supporters/companies> (last accessed 28 July 2015). Also see the various NEITI audit reports.

145 “Ten years of NEITI reports: What have we learnt”, available at: <http://www.neiti.org.ng/sites/default/files/publications/uploads/ten-years-neiti-reports.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

146 See: <http://www.neiti.org.ng/> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

147 Idemudia, U “The quest for the effective use of natural resource revenue in Africa: Beyond transparency and the need for compatible cultural democracy in Nigeria” (2009) 56/2Africa Today 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 3.

148 Ibid.

149 “Ten years of NEITI reports”, above at note 145 at 10.

150 “Nigeria EITI report shows US$ billions owed to government” (17 August 2009), available at: <https://eiti.org/news-events/nigeria-eiti-report-shows-us-billions-owed-government> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

151 See: <http://neiti.org.ng/index.php?q=documents/audit-report-2009-2011> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

152 “Financial audit: An independent report assessing and reconciling financial flows within Nigeria's oil and gas industry – 2009 to 2011” at 2, available at: <http://neiti.org.ng/sites/default/files/pdf_uploads/NEITI-EITI-Core-Audit-Report-Oil-Gas-2009-2011-310113-New.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

153 A copy of the report is available at: <https://eiti.org/files/NEITI-EITI-Core-Audit-Report-Oil-Gas-2009-2011-310113-New_4.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

154 J Alohan “Nigeria: NEITI report: NNPC cornered N2.1 trillion oil proceeds in two years” (1 February 2013) Leadership Newspaper Nigeria, available at: <http://allafrica.com/stories/201302010164.html> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

155 Ibid.

156 Speech by the chairman of NEITI, L Mitee, delivered on the occasion of public presentation of the NEITI independent oil and gas industry audit report covering 2009–2011 (Reiz Continental Hotel, Abuja, 30 January, 2013), available at: <http://www.neiti.org.ng/sites/default/files/documents/uploads/speech-nswg-chair-press-briefing-2009-2011-audit-report-review-final-310113.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

157 Ibid.

158 “Ten years of NEITI reports”, above at note 145 at 11.

159 G Anthony “The Petroleum Industry Bill (2009) and the issue of transparency and accountability in the extractive industry” in G Ojo (ed) Envisioning a Post Petroleum Nigeria (2010, ERA Publishers) 141 at 146.

160 “N1.3 trn debt: NEITI report's inaccurate, misleading – NNPC” (4 February 2013) Vanguard, available at: <http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/02/n1-3trn-debt-neiti-reports-inaccurate-misleading-nnpc/> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

161 See: <http://neiti.org.ng/index.php?q=documents/neiti-2006-2008-reports-final-january-30-2012> at III (last accessed 28 July 2015).

162 NEITI “We will implement NEITI audit reports - Buhari”, available at: <http://neiti.org.ng/index.php?q=news/2015/06/18/we-will-implement-neiti-audit-reports-buhari> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

163 Ibid.

164 See Ekhator, E “The impact of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on domestic law: A case study of Nigeria” (2015) 41/2Commonwealth Law Bulletin 253CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

165 Philips, F “Corporate social responsibility in an African context” (2006) Journal of Corporate Citizenship 23CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 23.

166 Ibid.

167 Forstater et al “Corporate responsibility”, above at note 130 at 27.

168 Ibid.

169 The Brenthurst Foundation “The Monrovia Principles: A guideline for corporate social responsibility in Africa” (discussion paper 2010/1), available at: <http://www.thebrenthurstfoundation.org/Files/Brenthurst_Commisioned_Reports/BD1001_The-Monrovia-Principles.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

170 Lambooji “Corporate social responsibility”, above at note 64.

171 For an analysis of petroleum contracts in Nigeria, see Ejims, O “The impact of Nigerian international petroleum contracts on the environmental and human rights of indigenous communities” (2013) 21 African Journal of International and Comparative Law 345CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

172 “Delta community gives Chevron 14-day ultimatum, threatens legal action” (8 October 2013) Sahara Reporters, available at: <http://saharareporters.com/news-page/delta-community-gives-chevron-14-day-ultimatum-threatens-legal-action> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

173 Ibid.

174 Ibid.

175 World Bank and Extractive Industries “Striking a better balance: The final report of the extractive review” (December 2003) at 60, also cited in Ejims “The impact of Nigerian international petroleum”, above at note 171 at 372.

176 Bregman, E and Jacobson, A “Environmental performance review: Self-regulation in environmental law” (1994) 16 Cardozo Law Review 465Google Scholar, cited in Oshionebo Transnational Corporations, above at note 111 at 111.

177 Royal Dutch Shell “Shell general business principles” (2005), available at: <http://s00.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/public/downloads/corporate-pkg/sgbp-english.pdf> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

178 “Ogoniland oil spills: Shell admits Nigeria liability” BBC News (3 August 2011), available at: <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14391015> (last accessed 7 August 2011).

179 “Environmental assessment of Ogoni Land: Executive summary” (2011), available at: <http://www.unep.org/disastersandconflicts/CountryOperations/Nigeria/EnvironmentalAssessmentofOgonilandreport/tabid/54419/Default.aspx> (last accessed 28 July 2015).

180 Ekhator “Improving access to environmental justice”, above at note 121 at 76–77.

181 Oshionebo Transnational Corporations, above at note 111 at 111.

182 Braithwaite, J “Enforced self-regulation: A new strategy for corporate crime” (1982) 80/7Michigan Law Review 1466CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 1470.